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THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. ( Departments of Post - Morris Jastrow, Jr . Ph.IJ. (Department of the Biblical Antiquities and the Jews of America). Bible).

Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. (Department of Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. (Departments of History from 1492 to 1902) . Theology and Philosophy) .

Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. (Department of Bab- Frederick i>e Sola Mf.ndes, Ph.D. (Chief of binical Literature) . the Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Richard Gottheii., Ph.D. (Departments of „ .. „ „ . . , .. .1 T

... . , ,, ’ Jr/. n . Herman Rosenthal (Department of the Jews of

History from Ezra to 1492 and History of Post- Russ a anti Poland )

Talmudic Literature).

Joseph Jacobs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews ISIDORE Singer, Ph.D. (Department of Modern of England and Anthropology ; Revising Editor). Biography from /jyo to 1902).

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments Talmud). of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature).

ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. FRANK H. VIZETELLV

Chairman of the Board Secretary 0/ the Board

ISIDORE SINGER. Ph.D.

Projector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES

EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK AND LONDON

FUNK AND WAG NALLS COMPANY

MDCCCCIII

(From “The World’s Work.” Copyright, 1901, Doubleday, Page & Co.)

BAR MIZWAH RECITING HIS PORTION OF THE LAW.

The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II.

Photograph by Mandelkern.

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. ( Departments of Post- Biblical Antiquities and the Jews of America) .

Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. ( Department of History from 1492 to 1902) .

Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. (Department of Rab- binical Literature ) .

Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. (Departments of History from Ezra to 1 492 and History of Post- Talmudic Literature ) .

Joseph Jacobs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revising Editor).

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud) .

Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. (Department of the Bible).

Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology and Philosophy ) .

Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. (Chief of the Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Herman Rosenthal (Department of the Jews of Russia and Poland).

Isidore Singer, Ph.D. (Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1902) .

Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature).

ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D.

Chairman of the Board

FRANK H. VIZETELLY

Secretary of the Board

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Protector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

VOLUME II

APOCRYPHA— BENASH

NEW YORK AND LONDON

FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY

M DCCCCIII

&fH jSxN

Copyright, 1902, by

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

A ll rights of translation reserved

Registered at Stationers’ Hall, London, England [ Printed in the United States of A merica ]

LITERARY DIRECTORATE

EDITORIAL BOARD

CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D.

( Departments of Post-Biblical Antiquities and the Jews of America.)

President of the American Jewish Historical Society; Libra- rian, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D. C.

GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.

(Department of History from 11*92 to 1902.)

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio ; Editor of " Deborah.”

LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.

( Department of Rabbinical Literature.)

New York; Author of “Die Haggada bei den Kirchenviitem.”

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

(Departments of History from Ezra to 11*92 and History of Post-Talmudic Literature.)

Professorof Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ; President of the Federation of American Zionists.

JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.

(Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revising Editor.)

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ; Author of “Jews of Angevin England,” etc.

MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.

( Department of the Talmud.)

Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel- phia, Pa.; Author of “ Dictionary of the Talmud.”

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.

(Department of the Bible.)

Professor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of “ Relig- ion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” etc.

AMERICAN BOARD OF

BERNARD DRACHM AN, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.

B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago ; Author of “ A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language.”

GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 111.; Professor of Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of Chicago ; Editor of the “ Reform Advocate.”

KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.

(Departments of Theology and Philosophy.)

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York ; President of the Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D.

( Chief of the Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor .) Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York ; Author of “Out- lines of Bible History',” “ Child’s First Bible,” etc.

HERMAN ROSENTHAL.

(Department of the Jews of Russia anil Poland.)

Chief of the Slavonic Department, New York Library.

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Managing Editor.

(Department of Modern Biography from 1790 to 190!.)

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.

(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature.)

Professorof Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge. Mass.; Author of “ The Religion of Israel,” “Judaism and Christianity,” etc.

I. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D.

(Chairman of the Board.)

Editor-in-Chief of the Standard Dictionary of the English Language, etc.

FRAtfK H. VIZETELLY.

(Secretary of the Board.)

Associate Editor of “The Columbian Encyclopedia,” and on the Standard Dictionary Editorial Staff, etc.

0 «

CONSULTING EDITORS

HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D.,

Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.

J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto, Canada ; Author of “ History, Prophecy, and the Monuments.”

H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,

Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu- guese), New York ; President of the Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.,

President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio: Au- thor of “ Introduction to the Talmud.”

VI

LITERARY DIRECTORATE

GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Biblical Literature and tbe History of Religions in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of “A Commentary on the Book of Judges,” etc. DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel ; Professor of Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio ; President of Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America.

IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, 111.; Author of “The Monuments and the Old Testament,” etc.

JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,

President of Central Conference of American Rabbis; Rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, New York.

JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro- fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.

EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,

Editor of “ The Literary Digest,” New York ; Author of “ Stories in Rhyme,” etc.

FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,

Coeditor of the “Jewish Quarterly Review ” ; Author of “Jew- ish Life in the Middle Ages,” etc.; Reader of Rabbinic, Cambridge University, England.

ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU,

Member of the French Institute ; Professor at the Free School of Political Science, Paris, France; Author of “ Israel chez les Nations.”

W. BACHER, Ph.D.,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary. Budapest, Hungary.

M. BRANN, Ph.D.,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger- many ; Editor of " Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums.”

ISRAEL LEVI,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of “Revue des Etudes Juives,” Paris, France.

EUDE LOLLI, D.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Padua ; Professor of Hebrew at the University, Padua, Italy.

H. BRODY, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Naehod, Bohemia. Austria ; Coeditor of “ Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Bibliographie.”

IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary; Author of “ Die Aramaischeu Pflanzennamen.”

ABRAHAM DANON,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople, Turkey.

HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D.,

Professor of Literary Arabic at the Special School of Oriental Languages, Paris ; Member of the Institut de France.

S. M. DUBNOW,

Author of “ Istoriya Yevreyev,” Odessa, Russia.

MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,

Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of “The Jewish Religion,” etc.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary.

M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria.

BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,

Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg, Russia.

ZADOC KAHN,

Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance Israelite Universelle ; Officer of the Legion of Honor, Paris, France.

M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain.

MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,

Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin ; Meran, Austria.

S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of Florence, Italy.

H. OORT, D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State University, Leyden, Holland.

ABBE PIETRO PERREAU,

Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma, Italy.

MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,

Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Jiidiscbe Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.

SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia.

SOLOMON SCHECHTER M.A., Litt.D.,

President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York; Author of ‘ Studies in Judaism.”

E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D.,

Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris, France.

LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of “ Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie,” etc.

HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, . University of Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,

Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England ; Editor of “ Sayings of the Jewish Fathers,” etc.

PREFATORY NOTE

THE present volume of The Jewish Encyclopedia lias been carried out on the principles explained at length in the general preface in the first volume. Only in one particular has a deviation been made from the plan there adopted. The delimitation of the various departments in some instances having proved extremely diffi- cult, it has been found desirable to indicate, in the case of each article, the department editor who is responsible for its appearance in the volume, by printing the initial of the editor on the left-hand side and the initials of the contributor or contributors in larger type on the right. When articles have been passed by the Executive Committee of the Editorial Board, instead of by the department editor, the initials “ E. c.” appear at the left.

New York, June 20, 1902, FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY.

SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION

OF PROPER NAMES*

A.— Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic.

1. AH important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James version; e.g., Moses, not Mosheh ; Isaac, not Yizhak ; Saul, not Sha'ul or Shaiil; Solomon, not Shelomoh, etc.

2. Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below.

3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- ences are made as in the case of personal names.

4.

5.

The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic :

X Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise ' or by dieresis; e.g., Ze'eb or Meir.

2 b	r 2	b i	Q with dagesh, p	sh
i g	n h	D m	Q without dagesh, f	t s
2 d	D t	: n	V ?	n t
n h	' y	D s	P H
1 w	2 k	V ‘	*1 r

Note : The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi- cated by doubling the letter.

The vowels have been transcribed as follows :

— a — w —a — e jo

-rr a — e — o i

-r- i , e a n u

Kamez hatuf is represented by o.

The so-called “ Continental ” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied.

6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following letter. [Not liak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shslianah .]

B. — Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic.

1. All Arabic names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another form, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system :

1 “	t kh	sh	£ 9h	u 71
‘-r’b	J d	U°s	Ljf	jC h
C -Jit	j dli		J k	) w
th	J r	t	CJ k	y
Z.J	) z	1 0 Z	J 1
XL *	s	t‘	f m
the three	vowels — a, i, u — are	represented :
	— a or a	— i or i	— u or u

No account has been taken of the imalah; i has not been written e, nor u written o.

* In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the Standard Dictionary has usually been followed. Typo- graphical exigencies have rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary.

X

SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES

3. The Arabic article is invariably written al; no account being taken of the assimilation of the l to the following letter; e.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafls al-Daulah, not Nafls ad-Daulah. The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word.

4. At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah ; but, when followed by a genitive, at ; e.g., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hi’at al-Aflak.

•5. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases ; e.g., ‘Amr, not ‘Amru or lAmrun; Ya'akub, not Ya'akubun; or in a title, Kitab al-amanat wal-'itikadat.

C. — Rules for the Transliteration of Russian.

All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in another iform, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system :

A a	a	Hh	n	U Jm	shell
B 6	b	0 o	o	'Ll,	mute
Bb	V	n n	P	LI H	V
r r	h, v, or g	Pp	r	L h	half mute
X a	cl	Cc	8	Li	ye
Ee	e and ye at the beginning.	Tt	t	9 3	e
}K JK	zh	yy	U	K> K)	yu
3 3	z	**	f	JI H	ya
H H	i	Xx	kh	0 e	F
Kk	k	I; It	tz	y r	oe
JI ji	l		ch	fin	i
M M	m	mm	sh

Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise.

1. Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under Nigrin ; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto ; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kamhis) under Kimhi ; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freely made from any other form to the most specific one ; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meiri ; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ; to Jedaiah Penini, from both Bedersi and En Bonet ; to John of Avignon from Moses de Roquemaure.

2. When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed by his official or other title ; or, where he has borne no such title, by “of” followed by the place of his birth or residence ; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah ha-Hasid ; Ger shorn of Metz, Isaac of Corbeil.

3. Names containing the word d’, de, da, di, or van, von, y, are arranged under the letter of

the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob d’lllescas under Illescas.

4. In arranging the alphabetical order of personal names ben, da, de, di, ha-, ibn*, of have not been taken into account. These names thus follow the order of the next succeeding capital letter :

Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron

Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Ze’eb

Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste

5. In order to facilitate reference, complete groups of all persons bearing such common names as

Aaron, Abraham, Jacob, are given in small type in a group immediately under the first key-word.

* Wherf Ibn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Ibn Ezra, such name is treated in its alphabetical place under “I.”

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

[Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliography, are not included here.]

Ab Abot, Pirke

Ab. R. N Abot de- Rabbi Nathan

‘Ab. Zarah ‘Abodah Zarah

adloc at the place

a. h in the year of the Hegira

Allg. Zeit. des Jud..Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. American Jewish Historical Society

A LangUr Semit' \ American Journal of Semitic Languages Anglo-Jew. Assoc... Anglo-Jewish Association

Apoc Apocalypse

Apocr Apocrypha

Apost. Const Apostolical Constitutions

‘Ar ‘Arakin (Talmud)

Arch. Isr Archives Israelites

art article

A. T Das Alte Testament

A. V Authorized Version

b ben or bar nr born

Bab Babli (Babylonian Talmud)

B Aunor AK B lb f Bacher, Agada der Babylonischen Amoriler Bacher, Ag. Pal. ( Bacher, Agada der Palastinensischen Amo- Amor ( raer

Bacher, Ag. Tan. ...Bacher, Agada derTannaiten Bar Baruch

B. B Baba Batra (Talmud)

b. c before the Christian era

Bek Bekorot (Talmud)

Benzinger, Arch. . .Benzinger, Hebriiisehe Archiiologie Ber Berakot (Talmud)

Berliner’s I Berliner’s Magazin fur die Wissenschaft des

Magazin ) Judenthums

Bik Bikkurim ( Talmud)

B. K Baba Kamma (Talmud)

B. M Baba Me?i‘a (Talmud)

BoletinAead.Hist. ] Bo(j^d d^ Ia Real Academiade ia Historia

i Briill’s Jahrbiicher fur Jiidische Geschichte Bruii s Jahrb ^ Und Litteratur

Bulletin All. Isr Bulletin of the Alliance Israelite Universelle

c about

Cant Canticles (Song of Solomon)

Cant. R Canticles Rabbah

Cat. Anglo-Jew. (Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex- Hist. Exh ) hibition

c. e common era

Cbtext.bib!!0g: and [ chapter or chapters

b * E n eye"1 11 B i b ! 3 l k ’ \ cheyne and Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica

I Chron I Chronicles

II Chron II Chronicles

C. I. A Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum

C. I. G Corpus Inscriptionum Grmearum

C. I. H Corpus Inscriptionum Hebraicarum

C. I. L Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum

C. I. S Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum

Col Colossians

Cor Corinthians

d died

D Deuteronomist

Dan Daniel

De Gubernatis, ( De Gubernatis, Dizionario Biograflco degli

Diz. Biog ) Scrittori Con tern poranei

Bern Demai (Talmud)

noror,hn,mr I,,.., 1 Derenbourg, Essai sur l’Histoire et la G&>- werenDourg, Hist. ^ grapl)ie de la Palestine, etc.

Deut Deuteronomy

Deut. R Deuteronomy Rabbah

E Elohist

Eccl Ecclesiastes

Eccl. R Ecclesiastes Rabbah

Eeclus. (Sirach) Eeelesiasticus

ed edition

‘Eduy ‘Eduyyot (Talmud)

Encyc. Brit Encyclopaedia Britannica

Eng English

Eph Ephesians

Epipbanius, Haeres. Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses ‘Er ‘Erubin (Talmud)

Ersch and I Ersch and Gruber. Allg. Encyklopadie der

Gruber, Encyc.. ( Wissenschaft und Kiinste

Esd Esdras

Esth Esther

Esther R Esther Rabbah

et seq and following

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastics

Ex Exodus

Ex. R Exodus Rabbah

Ezek Ezekiel

Frankel, Mebo Franke), Mebo Yerushalmi

Fiirst, Bibl. Jud Fiirst, Bibliotheca Judaica

FbKarawt'< '* d6* \ Fiirst, Geschichte des Kariierthums Gal Galatians

° BevisMarks1 l Gastel ’ Bevis Marks Memorial Volume

( Geiger, Urschrift und Debersetzungen der Geiger, Urschrift. < Bibel in Hirer Abhiingigkeit von der In- t neren Entwicklung des Judenthums

c«imr’= ir.fl 1 Geiger’s Jiidische Zeitschrift fiir Wissen- Geiger sjud.zeit. schaft und Lebf,n

Geiger’s Wiss. (Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Zeit. J iid. Theol. f J iidische Theologie

Gem Gernara

Gen Genesis

Gen. R Genesis Rabbah

Gesch Geschichte

Gesenius, Gr Gesenius, Grammar

Gesenius, Th Gesenius, Thesaurus

Gibbon, Decline (Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of

and Fall ) the Roman Empire

cinchurir'c mum ) Glnsburg’s Masorelieo-Critical Edition of uinsuurg s uioie.. ^ tbe Hebrew Bible

Git Gittin (Talmud)

Graetz, Hist Graetz, History of the Jews

Griitz, Gesch Griitz. Geschichte der Juden

Hab Habakkuk

Hag Haggai

Hag Hagigah (Talmud)

Hal Hallah (Talmud)

Hamburger, ( Hamburger, Kealeneyclopftdie fiir Bibel R. B. T f und Talmud

H« D'ct‘ [ Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible

Heb Epistle to the Hebrews

Hebr Masoretlc Text

Herzog- Pint or / Real-Encyklopiidie fiir Protestantische The-

Herzog- Hauck, > ologie und Klrche CM und 3d editions re-

Real-Encyc ) spectively)

ni,„io, j'Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon Hervorra- mrstn, Biog. i-ex. ( gender Aerzle Aller Zeiten und Vi)lker

Horn Homiletics or Homily

Hor Horayot (Talmud)

Hul Hullin (Talmud)

ib same place

idem same author

Isa Isaiah

Isr. Letterbode Israelitlsche Letterbode

J lahvist

Jaarboeken laarboeken voor de Israellten in Nederland

lncnhs Cnurces ) Jacobs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish-

jacoos, bounes. . ( Jewlsh History

JlB?blSAnglo-Jud’ fJacobs a,ltl 'Volf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Jmlaica Jahrb. Gesch. der ( Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte der Juden und

Jud ) des Judenthums

, I J as trow. Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal- j astro n. Diet ^ mudim< and Midrashim

Jellinek. B. H Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash

Jer leremiah

Jew. Chron Jewish Chronicle, London

Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. Jewish Historical Society of Englaud

Jew. Quart. Rev Jewish Quarterly Review

Jew. World Jewish World, London

Josephus, Ant Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews

Josephus. B. J Josephus, De Bello Judaico

JOAp)h.US.’.Cbntra. [ Josephus, Contra Apionem

Josh Joshua

Jost’s Annalen lost’s Israelitlsche Annalcn

Jour. Bib. Lit Journal of Biblical Literature

JUTryphDlal‘ CUm j- Justin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judaeo K a uf in a n n Ge- ( Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kauf- denkbuch f matin

Kavserling, Bibl. ( Kayserling.Biblioteca Espaiiola-Portugueza- Esp.-Poft.-Jud.. f Judaica

Ker Keritot (Talmud)

Ket, Ketubot (Talmud)

Kid Kiddushin (Talmud)

Kil Kilayatti (Talmud)

Kin Kinnim (Talmud)

xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Kil Kilayim (Talmud)

Kin Kinnim (Talmud)

K<Volumeem0rial ! Seraitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut Krauss, Lehn- i Krauss, Griechische und Lateinische Lehn-

wdrter.. t wiirter, etc.

Lam Lamentations

Lam. R Lamentations Rabbali

■l.c in the place cited

Lev Leviticus

Lev. R Leviticus Rabbah

^Wiirterb. [ Levy< Chaldaisches VVbrterbuch, etc.

Levy, Neuhebr. I Levy, Neuhebriiisches und Cbaldaisches

Worterb 1 Worterbueh, etc.

LXX Septuagint

in married

Ma'as Ma'aserot (Talmud)

Ma'as. Sb Ma'aser Sbeni (Talmud)

Macc Maccabees

Mat Makkot (Talmud)

Maksli Makshirin (Talmud)

Mai Malachi

Mas Masorak

Massek Masseket

Matt Matthew

I McC'iintock and Strong, Cyclopaedia of Bib- Strong, Cyc ' Heal, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter-

Meg Megillah (Talmud)

Me‘i Me'ilah (Talmud)

Mek Mekilta

Men Menahot (Talmud)

Mid .. Middo’t (Talmud)

Midr Midrash

Midr. R Midrash Rabbah

Midr. Teh Midrash Tebillim (Psalms)

Mik Mikwaot (Talmud)

M. K Mo'ed Katan (Talmud)

m . i ft 1 Monatssclirift fiir Geschichte und Wissen- juonatssem in -j gchaft des judenthums

Mortara, Indice Mortara, Indice Alfabetico

MS Manuscript

Miiller, Frag.Hist. I Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graeco-

Graje 1 rum

Naz Nazir (Talmud)

n. d no date

Ned Nedarim (Talmud)

Neg Nega'im

Neh Nehemiah

N. T New Testament

Neubauer, Cat. ( Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS. Bodl.Helir.MSS. f in the Bodleian Library

Neubauer, G. T Neubauer, Geographic du Talmud

Num Numbers

Num. R Numbers Rabbah

Obad Obadiah

Oest. Wochenschrift.Oesterreichische Wochenschrift

Oh Ohalot (Talmud)

Onk Onkelos

Orient, Lit I.iteraturblatt des Orients

O. T Old Testament

P Priestly code

\ Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon Hervorra- Pagel, Biog. I,ex. gender Aerzte des Neunzehnten Jahrhun- I derts

Pal. F.xplor. Fund . . Palestine Exploration Fund

Pauly- Wissowa, ( Pauly-Wissowa, Real- Encyclopedic der Clas-

Real-Encyc f sischen Altertumswissenschaft

Pent Pentateuch

Pes Pesahim (Talmud)

Pesh Peshito, Peshitta

Pesik. R Pesikta Rabbati

Pesik Pesikta de-Rab Kahana

Phil Philippians

Pirke R. El Pirke Rabbi Eliezer

Prov Proverbs

Ps Psalms

R Rabbi or Rab (before names)

R I*i't -lllatt iHi f Rabmer’s Judisches Litteratur-Blatt

Regesty Regesty i Nadpisi

Rev. As Revue Asiatique

Rev. Bib Revue Biblique

Rev. Et. Jmves Revue des Etudes Juives

Rev. Sdm Revue Sdmitique

R. H Rosh ha-Shanah (Talmud)

nittor ) Ritter, Die Erdkunde im Verhaltms zur

muei, truKunue. -j Natur und 2ur Geschichte des Menschen Rom Romans

Roest, Cat. I Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und .ludaica aus

Rosenthal. Bibl. f der L. Rosenthal'scheu Bibliothek R. V Revised Version

Salfeld, Martyro- / Salfeld, Das Martyrologium des Niirnberger logium f Memorbuches

I Sam I Samuel

II Sam II Samuel

Sanh Sanhedrin (Talmud)

S B n T \ (Sacrect Books of the Old Testament) Poly-

I chrome Bible, ed. Paul Haupt

Encyc.erZ° V . . . i Sohaff-Herzog, A Religious Encyclopaedia Schrader. ( Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the

C. I. O. T i Old Testament, Eng. trails.

spiinrter t,' i t f Schrader, Keilinschriften und das Alte Tes- ’ ' L' l lament

Schrader, K. B Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek

Schrader K (i F I Schrader, Keilinschriften und Geschichts-

’ ' ' ' I forschung

Schurer, Gesch Schurer, Geschichte des Jiidischen Volkes

Sem Semahot (Talmud)

Shab Shabbat (Talmud)

Sheb Shebi'it (Talmud)

Shebu Shebu'ot (Talmud)

Shek Shekalim (Talmud)

Sibyllines Sibylline Books

Smith, Rel. of Sem. .Smith, Religion of the Semites

stade’s 7eitschrift I Stade’s Zeitschrift fur die Alttestament- staae s zeitscbi ift -j ,i(.he Wissenschaft

Steinschneider, I Steinschneider, Catalogue of the Hebrew Cat, Bodl f Books in the Bodleian Library

Sttlebr!'BU)ieI.’... [ Steinschneider, Hebraische Bibliographie

Hebr ' ifebers S' Steinschneider, Hebraische Uebersetzungen

Suk Sukkah (Talmud)

s.v under the word

Sym Symmachus

Ta‘an Ta'anit (Talmud)

Tan Tanhuma

Targ Targumim

Targ. O Targum Onkelos

Targ. Yer Targum Yerushalmi or Targum Jonathan

Tem Temurah (Talmud)

Ter Terumot (Talmud)

Tbess Thessalonians

Tim Timothy

Toh Toharot

Tos Tosafot

Tosef Tosefta

transl translation

Tr. Soc. Bibl. I Transactions of the Society of Biblical Ar-

Arch f chaeology

T. Y Tebul Yom (Talmud)

‘Uk ‘Ukzin (Talmud)

Univ. Isr Dnivers Israelite

Urkundenli Urkundenbuch

Vess. Isr Vessillo Israelltico

Vos Voskhod (Russian magazine)

Vulg . .Vulgate

Weiss, Dor Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw

Wellkausen, (_ Wellhausen, Israelitische und Judische

I. J. G 1 Geschichte

Winer. B. R Winer, Biblisches Realworterbuch

Wisd. Sol Wisdom of Solomon

Wolf, Bibl. Hebr.. .Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebraea

,r r, M 1 Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des

• 'i Morgenlandes

Yad Yadayiin (Talmud)

" Yad ” Yad lia-Hazakah

Yalk Yalkut

Yeb’. Yebauiot (Talmud)

Yer Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)

Yhwh Jehovah

Zab Zabim (Talmud)

r n r- ) Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenliind-

L. u. M. G ■) iscben Gesellschaft

Zeb Zebahim (Talmud)

Zech Zechariah

Zedner. Cat. Hebr. / Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in Books Brit. Mils. I the British Museum

Zeit. fiir Assyr Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie

ZepaiastUVer !' Zeits<'lirift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins

Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl. Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische Bibliographie Zeitlin.Bibl. Post- / Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendels-

Mendels f. sohniana

Zeph Zephaniah

Zunz, G. S Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften

Zunz, G. V Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage

Zunz, Literatnr- ( Zunz, l.iteraturgeschichte der Synagogalen

gesch 1 Poesie

T, ,,110 1 Zunz. Die Ritus des Synagogalen Gottes-

zunz, Rttus -j dienstes

Zunz, S. P Zunz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters

Zunz, Z. G Zunz, Zur Geschichte und Literatnr

Note to the Reader.

Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the use of capitals and small capitals in the text ; as, Abba Arika; Pu.mbedita; Vocalization.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II

A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,

President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

A. Bm A. Blum,

Rabbi in New York.

A. Bu Adolf Btichler, Ph.D.,

Professor Jewish Theological Seminary, Vienna, Austria.

A. D Abraham Danon,

Principal Jewish Theological Seminary, Con- stantinople, Turkey.

A. E A. Eckstein, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Bamberg, Germany ; Member of the Central Committee of the Alliance Israelite Universelle.

A. F A. Freimann, Ph.D.,

Librarian of the Hebrew Department, Stadt- bibliothek, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany.

A. Fe Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Realschule, Fiirth, Germany.

A. FI A. Fleischmann,

New York.

A. Ha Alexander Harkavy,

New York.

A. H. N A. H. Newman, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Cognate Languages and Old Testament Exegesis, McMaster Uni- versity, Toronto, Can.

A. Kai Alois Kaiser,

Cantor of Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md.

A. B. L Albert li. Leubuscher,

New York.

A. Lo A. Loewenthal, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Tarnowitz, Germany.

A. P Albert Porter,

Associate Editor of “ The Forum,” New York ; Revising Editor “ Standard Cyclopedia.”

A. R A. Rhine,

Rabbi, Hot Springs, Ark.

A. S. C Alexander S. Chessin,

Professor of Mathematics, Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo.

A. S. I Abram S. Isaacs,

Professor of German Literature, University of the City of New York ; Editor of “ The Jewish Messenger,” New York City.

A.V.W.J...A. V. W. Jackson, Ph.D., L.H.D.,

Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, Colum- bia University, New York.

A. W. B.. .A. W. Brunner,

Architect, New York.

B Mrs. Bolaffio,

Milan, Italy.

B. B Benuel H. Brumberg,

Contributor to “ National Cyclopedia of Amer- ican Biography,” New York.

B. D Bernard Drachman, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.

C. F. K Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.,

Professor of Biblical Literature and History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. ; Author of “ A History of the Hebrew People.”

C. J. M Charles J. Mendelsohn,

Philadelphia, Pa.

C. L Caspar Levias, M.A.,

Instructor in Exegesis and Talmudic Aramaic, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

C. R. C Lieut. -Col. Claude R. Conder, LL.D.,

Formerly Superintendent of the Survey of Palestine by Palestine Exploration Fund.

D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

D. B. M Duncan B. MacDonald, B.D.,

Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn.

D. G Baron David von Giinzburg,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

D. I. F D. I. Freedman, B.A.,

Rabbi in Perth, Western Australia.

D. W. A — David Werner Amram, LL.B.,

Attorney at Law. Philadelphia, Pa. ; Author of “ The Jewish Law of Divorce.”

E. Ba Emanuel Baumgarten,

Translator of “Hobot ba-Lebabot,” Vienna, Austria.

E. Ban Eduard Baneth, Ph.D.,

Professor in the Hochschule, Berlin, Germany. E. C Executive Committee of the Editorial Board.

E. G. H — Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, III. ; Professor of Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy in the University of Chicago.

E. L5 Emile L4vy,

Chief Rabbi of Bayonne, France.

E. Me Eduard Meyer, Ph.D.,

Professor of Ancient History, University of Halle, Germany.

E. Ms E. Mels,

New York.

E. N Eduard Neumann, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Nagy-Kanisza, Hungary.

xiv

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II

E. Sch Emil Schtirer, Ph.D.,

Professor of New Testament Exegesis at the University of Gottingen, Germany ; Author of “Geschichte des Volkes Israel im Zeitalter Jesu Christi.”

E. Sd E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D.,

Secretary of Jewish Colonization Associar tion, Paris, France.

F. Bu Frants Buhl, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Philology at Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Author of “ Geographie des Alten Paliistina.”

F. C. B F. C. Burkitt, M.A.,

Editor of “ The Fragments of Aquila,” Cam- bridge, England.

F. H. K Frank H. KnoWlton, M.S., Ph.D.,

Assistant Curator of Botany, U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D. C.

F. H. V. . . .Frank H. Vizetelly,

Associate Editor of the “ Columbian Cyclope- dia,” and on Standard Dictionary Edito- rial Staff.

F. L. C Francis L. Cohen,

Rabbi, Borough New Synagogue London, England. Coeditor of “ Voice of Prayer and Praise.”

F. S Flaminio Servi,

Chief Rabbi of Casale-Monferrato, Italy ; Edi- tor of “ II Vessillo Israelitico.”

F. de S.M. Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York.

F. T. H F. T. Hannemann, M.D.,

New York.

G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York ; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ; Presi- dent of the Federation of American Zionists.

G. A. B George A. Barton, Ph.D.,

Associate Professor in Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages at Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.

G. A. D G. A. Danziger,

New York.

H. F Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D.,

Formerly Superintendent of Department of Manuscripts, Library of Congress, Washing- ton, D. C. ; Secretary American Jewish His- torical Society, Philadelphia, Pa.

H. G. E....H. G. Endow, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Adath Israel, Louis- ville, Ky.

H. Hir Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D.,

Professor in Jews’ College, London, England.

H. I H. Illiowizi,

Formerly Rabbi in Philadelphia, Pa.

H. M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

H. M. S.. H. M. Speaker,

Gratz College, Philadelphia, Pa.

H. R Herman Rosenthal,

Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New York Public Library.

H. S Henrietta Szold,

Secretary of the Publication Committee of the Jewish Publication Society of America.

H. Ve H. Veld,

Rabbi in Amsterdam, N. Y.

I. B Isaac Bloch,

Chief Rabbi of Nancy, France.

I. Be Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis at the Berlin University, Berlin.

I. Ber Israel Berlin,

Chemist, New York.

I. Br I. Broyd6,

Diploma of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes; Late Librarian of Alliance Israelite Univer- selle, Paris, France.

I. D Israel Davidson, Ph.D.,

New York.

I. Hu Isaac Husik,

Tutor, Gratz College, Philadelphia, Pa.

I. L Israel Levi,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Paris, France ; Editor of “ Revue des Etudes Juives.”

G. A. K ....George Alexander Kohut, Ph.D.,

Formerly Rabbi in Dallas, Texas.

G. B. L Gerson B. Levi,

Philadelphia, Pa.

, G. F. M George F. Moore, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Biblical Literature and the His- tory of Religions in Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass. Author of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, etc.

G. J Giuseppe Jare,

Chief Rabbi of Ferrara, Italy.

G. L Goodman Lipkind, B. A.,

Rabbi in London, England.

H. B H. Brody, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria; Coeditor of “ Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Bibliographie.”

H. Ba H. Baar,

Formerly Rabbi in New Orleans and Superin- tendent of Hebrew Orphan Asylum, New York.

I. Lo Immanuel Low,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary.

I. Ly Isidore L6vy,

Paris, France.

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature in the University of Chicago, 111.; Author of “ The Monuments and the Old Testament.”

J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ; Author of " Jews of Angevin England,” etc.

J. Ba Jules Bauer,

Rabbi in Avignon, France.

J. Ch J. Chotzner, Ph.D.,

Rabbinical Lecturer at Monteflore College, Ramsgate, England.

J. D. E J. D. E. Eisenstein,

New York.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II

xv

J. D. P John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, New York University.

J. F. McC.J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages in the Uni- versity College, Toronto, Canada; Author of “ History, Prophecy, and the Monuments.”

IJ. Fr J. Friedlander, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Beaumont, Texas.

J. G. L J. G. Lipman,

(Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station, New Bruns- wick, N. J.

J. Hy J. Hyams,

Bombay, India.

J. Jr Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of “Religion of the Babylonians and As- syrians,” etc.

J. Xi. S Joseph L. Sossnitz,

New York.

J. M. C J. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,

U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. ; Author of “ Paranomasia in the Old Testa- ment.”

J. M. H. . J. M. Hillesum,

Librarian of the Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, University of Amsterdam, Holland.

J. P. P John P. Peters, D.D.,

Rector of St. Michael’s Church, New York ; Author of “ Nippur, or Exploration and Ad- ventures on the Euphrates.”

J. So Joseph Sohn,

Formerly of “ The Forum,” New York.

J. Sr Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of “Dic- tionary of the Talmud.”

J. T J. Theodor, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Bojanowo, Posen, Germany.

J. Vr J. Vredenbui-g, M.A.,

Rabbi in Amsterdam, Holland.

J. W Julien Weill,

Rabbi in Paris, France.

K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York.

K. H. C Karl Heinrich Cornill,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Ex- egesis, Breslau University, Breslau, Germany.

L. B Ludwig Blau, Ph.D.,

Professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary ; Editor of “ Magyar Zsidd Szdmle ” ; Author of “ Das Alt-Jiidisehe Zauberwesen.”

L. G Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D.,

New York ; Author of “ Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvatern.”

L. Grii Lazarus Griinhut,

Director of Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem.

L. Hii L. Hiihner, A.M., LL.B.,

New York.

L. L L. Lowenstein,

Rabbi in Mosbach, Germany.

L. N L. Nathensen,

Copenhagen, Denmark.

L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz,

Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky. ; Author of “ Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home.”

L. S Ludwig Stein, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy at the University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of “ Archiv fur Ge- schiehte der Philosophic.”

L. V Ludwig Venetianer,

Rabbi in Neupest, Hungary.

M Dr. S. Miihsam,

Chief Rabbi of Gratz, Austria.

M. B Moses Beer,

London.

M. C M. Caimi,

Corfu, Greece.

M. C. C M. C. Currick, A.B.,

Rabbi Anshe Chesed Congregation, Erie, Pa.

M. Co Max Cohen,

Counselor at Law, New York.

M. F Michael Friedlander, Ph.D.,

Principal, Jews’ College, London, England ; Translator of Maimonides' “Guide of the Perplexed.”

M. Fi Maurice Fishberg, M.D.,

Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen- sary ; Medical Examiner to the United He- brew Charities, New York.

M. Fr M. Franco,

Principal of the Alliance Israelite Universelle School, Shumla, Bulgaria.

M. Ga Moses Gtester, Ph.D.,

Haham of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, London, England.

M. J. K ...Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B.,

Attorney at Law ; Recording Secretary of the American Jewish Historical Society, New York.

M. K Moritz Kayserling, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Author of “Ge- schichte der Juden in Portugal,” etc.

M. L. B — Moses Lob Bamberger, Ph.D.,

Karlsruhe, Germany.

M. L. M....Max L. Margolis, Ph.D.,

Associate Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of California, Berkeley, Cal.

M. M. K....M. M. Kaplan,

New York City.

M Ro [••• Max Rosenthal, M.D.,

Secretary of the German Dispensary, New York.

M. Ra Max Raisin,

Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. S Moise Schwab, Ph.D.,

Librarian of the Hebrew Department at the Biblioth{“que Nationale, Paris, France ; Trans- lator of the Jerusalem Talmud.

M. Sehw...M. Schwarzfeld,

Rabbi in Bucharest, Rumania.

M. W Max Weisz, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Budapest, Hungary.

M. W. L.. .Martha Washington Levy, B.A.,

Late of “ The International Cyclopedia.”

N. R N. Rashkovski,

Odessa, Russia.

XVI

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II

O. F Oscar Friedlander,

Vienna, Austria.

P. B Philipp Bloch, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Posen, Germany.

P. J Peter Jensen,

Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Marburg, Germany.

P. W Paul Wendland, Ph.D.,

Berlin, Germany, Coeditor of “Philonis Opera.”

P. Wi Peter Wiernik,

New York.

R. W. R Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- gesis, Drew Theological Sem., Madison, N. J. S Isidor Singer, Ph.D., Managing Editor.

S. B Samuel Baeck, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Lissa, Germany.

S. Ba Solomon Bamberger,

Strasburg, Germany.

S. J S. Janovsky,

Attorney at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.

S. K S. Kahn,

Rabbi in Nimes, France.

S. Kr S. Krauss, Ph.D.,

Professor Normal College, Budapest, Hun- gary ; Author of “ Griechische und Lateinische Lehnworter.”

S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Wilmington, N. C.

S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,

instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincin- nati, 0.

S. M. D S. M. Dubnow,

Odessa, Russia ; Author of “ A History of the Jews.”

S. R S. Roubin,

Rabbi, Woodbine, N. J.

S. Si S. Spiel vogel,

Geelong, Victoria, Australia.

T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of “The Religion of Israel,” “Judaism and Christianity.”

T. H Theodor Herzl, Ph.D.,

President of the International Zionist Con-

gress, Vienna, Austria; Author of “Der Jii- dische Staat.”

T. S Tobias Shanfarber, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of Ansche Ma'arab Congregation, Chi- cago, 111.

V- B Victor Basch,

Professor at Rennes, France.

V. C Victor Castiglioni,

Professor, Triest, Austria.

V. R Vasili Rosenthal,

Kremenchug, Russia.

W. B W. Bacher, Ph.D.,

Professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary; Author of "Die Agada der Tannaim,” etc.

W. M William Milwitzky,

Late of Harvard University Library, Cam- bridge, Mass.

W. M. M . . . W. Max Muller, Ph.D.,

Professor of Bible Exegesis in the Reformed Episcopal Theological Seminary, Philadel- phia, Pa.

W. Rei W. Reich,

Rabbi in Vienna, Austria.

W. S William Salant, M.D.,

New York.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II

N. B. — In the following list subjects likely to besought for under various headings are repeated under each. Traditional ascriptions are denoted by quotation-marks.

PAGE

“Alexamenos prays to His God.” From a graffito in the Collegio Romano 222

Alliance Israelite Universelle Girls’ School at Bagdad 437

Altar of Ba‘al at Petra, Idumaea 378

Plienician, with Bust of Ba'al as a Sun-God 379

Amsterdam, Ark of the Law of the Sephardic Synagogue at 108

Apamea, Coin of, with Supposed Representation of Noah’s Ark Ill

Apple of Sodom 2.1

Aqueduct, Track of Siloam 32

Aqueducts Leading to Jerusalem, Plan of 32

Aquila, Fragment of Ilis Greek Translation of II Kings xxiii. 15-19 plate facing 34

Ar Moab, View of the Ruins of 40

Arad, Hungary, Interior of Synagogue at 00

Ararat, Near Niagara, Foundation-Stone of Proposed City of 74

View of Mount, from the Russian Frontier 73

Arba‘ Kanfot 70

Arch, Robinson’s, at Jerusalem 141

Arclielaus, Herod, Copper Coin of 78

Archeology: see Arch, Robinson’s; Ashkelon; Ass; Bowl; Coins; Pottery; Seal; Vase.

Archers, Company of Egyptian, at Deir el-Bahari 85

Persian, as Body-Guard of Darius 80

Architecture: see Aiik of the Law; Robinson’s Arch; Synagogues.

Aretas IV. Philodeme of Nabathaea, Bronze Coin of, with Hebrew Inscription 89

Aristobulus, Judas, Copper Coins of, with Two Cornua-Copiai 95

■“Ark of the Covenant.” After Calmet 103

Ark of the Law, Earliest Representation of, Now in the Museo Borgiano at Rome 107

from the Synagogue at Modena, 1505 c.e Ill

of the Sephardic Synagogue at Amsterdam 108

of the Synagogue at Bayonne, France 60(5

of the Synagogue at Gibraltar 109

of the Synagogue at Pogrebishclie, Russia 110

Symbolic Representation of, Now in the Museo Borgiano at Rome 108

“Ark of Noah.” From the Sarajevo Haggadah 112

Ark of Noah, Resting on Mt. Ararat 112

■ Supposed Representation of, on Coin of Apamea Ill

Arkansas, Synagogue at Little Rock 113

Army: Assyrian Soldiers on the March 121

Company of Egyptian Soldiers 122

Persian Foot-Soldiers 123

see also Badge.

Hebrew: see Inscriptions; Script.

Herod Archelaus, Copper Coin of 78

“Hobot lia-Lebabot,” Page from Editio Princeps of Baliya’s 449

Holland : see Amsterdam.

Idumaea : see Petra.

Imprint of Joseph Athias 268

Inquisition: see Auto da Fit

Inscriptions, Hebrew: see Bowl; Coins; Seal.

Italy : see Modena.

Jerusalem: see Aqueducts; Beard; Robinson’s Arch.

“Jew Mount”: see Mon.iuich.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II

xx»

TAGE

Jewry : see London.

Judas Aristobulus, Copper Coins of 95

“ Kapparah.” : see Atonement, Day of.

“ LSmlein Medal Attributed to Benjamin ben Elijah Beer 632

Lions, Representations of, on 107, 108

Little Rock, Ark., Synagogue at 113

London, Ralph Aggas’ Map of, Showing the Location of “Old Jewry” and “Bakewell Hall” 461

Maccabeus, Simon, Shekel of 138

Madrid : see Auto da Fe.

Magic : see Bowl.

“ Malkut ” : see Atonement, Day of.

Manuscript : see Aquila ; Badge.

Maps: see Aqueducts; Ashkelon; Asia; Asia Minor; London.

Medals: see Basel; “Lamlein Medal.”

Metz, Day of Atonement, as Observed by the Jewish Soldiers in the German Army in 1870, Before 287

Moab : see Ar Moab.

Modena, Ark of the Law from the Synagogue at Ill

Money, Egyptian Method of Weighing 470

Monjuich, “Jew Mount,” Supposed Site of the Jewish Cemetery at Barcelona 527

Mount Ararat, from the Russian Frontier 73

Music, “ Ashamnu ” 176

“Ashirah” 188, 189

“ Aslire ” 204

“Aslire lia-‘Am” 205

“ Attah Hore’ta ” 289

“Az Shesli Me’ot” 361

“ Bemoza’e ” 671

Nabathaea : see Aretas IV.

New York Jews in an East Side Synagogue Confessing Their Sins in the Prayer “Ashamnu ” 288

Noah : see Ark of Noah.

Oheb Shalom Temple, Baltimore 478

Orphan Asylum, Baruch Auerbach, at Berlin 299

Oven, Modern, as Used in Syria 462

Palestine: see Aqueducts ; Ar Moab; Ashdod; Ashkelon; Asia, Map of ; Jerusalem.

Persia: see Archers.

Petra, Idumaea, Altar of Ba'al at 378

Phenicia: see Ass; Astarte; Ba'al, Altar of; Ba'al Hamon.

Plants: see Apple of Sodom; Balsam Plant.

Pogrebisliche, Russia, Ark of the Law of the Synagogue at 110

Portraits: see

Arnstein, Fanny von.

Aron, Arnaod.

Artom, Haiiam Benjamin. Artom, Isaac.

Ascoli, Graziadio Isaiah. Asher, Asher.

Ashkenazi, Hakam Zebi Hirsch. Asknazi, Isaac Lvovich. Astruc, Elie-Aristide.

Astruc, Jean.

Auerbach, Berthold.

Auspitz, Heinrich.

Ayllon, Solomon ben Jacob. Bacher, Wilhelm.

Baer, Seligman (Sekel). Bamberger, Ludwig.

Barit, Jacob (Jankele Kovner). Barnay, Ludwig.

Barnett (Beer), John. Bartolocci, Giulio.

Basnage, Jacob.

Beck, Karl.

Beer, Bernhard.

Beer, Michael.

Beer, Peter.

Belais, Abraham ben Shalom. Belasco, David.

Ben-Ze’eb, Judah LOb. Benamozegh, Elijah.

Pottery, Hebrew, Bottles Found Near Jerusalem 140

Printer’s Mark : see Imprint.

Rameses II. Besieging Ashkelon 192

Robinson’s Arch, Jerusalem 141

Russia : see Pogrebishche.

Scale : see Balance.

Script : see Aquila.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II

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Scrolls of the Law : see Ark of the Law.

Seal of Elishegib bat Elisharaa 140

of the Jews of Augsburg, 1298 306

Sephardic Synagogue at Amsterdam, Ark of the Law of 108

Shekel of Simon Maccabeus 138

Shields: see Archers; Army; Ashkelon, Siege of.

Siege of Ashkelon by Rameses II 192

Signatures: see Autographs.

Siloarn, Track of Aqueduct of 32

Simon Maccabeus, Shekel of 138

Sodom, Apple of 25

Soldiers: see Archers; Army.

Spain : see Auto da Fe ; Barcelona.

Sphynx, Goddess Astarte as a 239

Sun-God, Ba‘al as a 379

Symbolic Representation of the Ark of the Law 108

Synagogues : see Amsterdam; Arad; Arkansas; Atonement, Day of; Augusta; Avignon; “Bake- well Hall ” ; Baltimore ; Bayonne.

Syria, Modern Baking-Oven Used in 462

“ Tallit Katon,” Small Tallit or Arba‘ Kanfot 76

Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore 478

Temple, Representation of, on Bottom of Glass Vase 140

“ Teshubah ” : see Atonement, Day of.

“ Tower of Babel.” From the Sarajevo Haggadah 396

Types, Jewish: see Bagdad; Bar Mizwah; Beard; New York.

United States: see Arkansas; Augusta; Baltimore; New York.

Vase, Bottom of, with Representation of the Temple and Golden Candlestick 140

Weights Used by Egyptians in Weighing Money 470

Wells of Beer-sheba 637

“Zedakah” : see Atonement, Day of. Zionism : see Basel.

“Zizit,” Fringes of the Arba‘ Kanfot

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THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

APOCRYPHA : § I. The most general defini- tion of Apocrypha is, Writings having some preten- sion to the character of sacred scripture, or received as such by certain sects, but excluded from the canon (see Canon).

The history of the earlier usage of the word is ob- scure. It is probable that the adjective an6iipv<pog, “ hidden away, kept secret,” as applied to books, was first used of writings which were kept from the pub- lic by their possessors because they contained a mys- terious or esoteric wisdom too profound or too sacred to be communicated to any but the initiated. Thus a Leyden magical papyrus bears the title, Muvoeuc iepa ftifiAoc (nroKpvpoQ eTTina/.ovpevp oydor/ ?/ ayia, “ The Secret Sacred Book of Moses, Entitled the Eighth or the Holy Book” (Dietrich, “Abraxas,” 169). Plierecydes of Syros is said to have learned his wisdom from ra <t>oivin uv anoKpvipa f3i[3/.ia, “The Secret Books of the Phenicians ” (Suidas, s.v. ^epeKvbr/g). In the early cen- turies of our era many religious and philosophical sects had such scriptures; thus the followers of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted the possession of secret books (anoKpv<pov^) of Zoroaster (Clemens Alexandri- nus, “Stromata,” i. 15 [357 Potter]). IV Esdras is avowedly such a work : Ezra is bidden to write all the things which he has seen in a book and lay it up in a hidden place, and to teach the contents to the wise among his people, whose intelligence he knows to be sufficient to receive and preserve these secrets (xii. 36 et seq.). (see Dan. xii. 4, 9; Enoch, i. 2, cviii. 1; Assumptio Mosis, x. 1 et seq.) In another passage such writings are expressly distinguished from the twenty-four canonical books; the latter are to be pub- lished that they may be read by the worthy and unworthy alike; the former (seventy in number) are to be preserved and transmitted to the wise, because they contain a profounder teaching (xiv. 44-47). In this sense Gregory of Nyssa quotes words of John in the Apocalypse as kv an-oKpvfoig (“ Oratio in Suam Or- dinationem,” iii. 549, ed. Migne; compare Epiplianius, “ Adversus Hsereses,” li. 3). The book contains reve- lations not to be comprehended by the masses, nor rashly published among them.

Inasmuch, however, as this kind of literature flour- ished most among heretical sects, and as many of the writings themselves were falsely attributed to the famous men of ancient times, the word “Apocry- pha ” acquired in ecclesiastical use an unfavorable II.— 1

*

connotation; the private scriptures treasured by the sects were repudiated by the Church as heretical and often spurious. Lists were made of the books which the Church received as sacred scripture and of those which it rejected; the former were “canonical ” (see Canon); to the latter the name “ Apocrypha " was given. The canon of the Church included the books which are contained in the Greek Bible but not in the Hebrew (see the list below, § III.); hence the term “Apocrypha” was not applied to these books, but to such writings as Enoch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, etc. (see below, § III.). Jerome alone applies the word to all books which are not found in the Jewish canon (see “ Prologus Galeatus ”). At the Reformation, Protestants adopted the Jewish canon, and designated by the name “Apocrypha” the books of the Latin and Greek Bibles which they thus rejected; while the Catholic Church in the Coun- cil of Trent formally declared these books canonical, and continued to use the word “ Apocrypha ” for the class of writings to which it had generally been ap- propriated in the ancient Church; for the latter, Prot- estants introduced the name “ Pseudepigrapha. ”

$ II. Apocryphal Books among the Jews. Judaism also had sects which possessed esoteric or recondite scriptures, such as the Essenes (Josephus, “B. J.” ii. 8, §7), and the Therapeutffi (Philo, “ De Vita Contemplativa,” ed. Mangey, ii. 475). Their occurrence among these particular sects is explic- itly attested, but doubtless there were others. In- deed, many of the books which the Church branded as apocryphal were of Jewish (sometimes heretical Jewish) origin. The Jewish authorities, therefore, were constrained to form a canon, that is, a list of sacred scriptures; and in some cases to specify par- ticular writings claiming this character which were rejected and forbidden. The former — so the distinc- tion is expressed in a ceremonial rule (Yad. iii. 5; Tosef., Yad. ii. 13) — make the hands which touch them unclean — D'TH DX I'XDOD tnpn ’3n3 ; the

latter do not (see Canon). Another term used in the discussion of certain books is fjy properly “to lay up, store away for safekeeping,” also “withdraw from use.” Tims, Shab. 306, “The sages intended to withdraw Ecclesiastes”; “they also intended to withdraw Proverbs”; ib. 136,“ Hananiah b. Hezekiah prevented Ezekiel from being withdrawn ” ; Sanh. 1006 (Codex Carlsruhe), “although our masters with-

Apocrypha

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2

drew this book ” (Sirack), etc. It lias frequently been asserted that the idea and the name of the Greek “ Apocrypha ” were derived from this Hebrew ter- minology. (See Zalin, “Gesch. des Neutestament- lichen Kanons,” i. 1,123 et seq.; Schiirer, in "Protest- antische Realencyclopiidie,” 3d ed., i. 623, and many others; compare Hamburger, “ Realencyklopadie,” ii. 68, n. 4.) “Apocrypha” (aTOKpvya /h/LUa) is, it is said, a literal translation of D'lSD. “concealed, hidden books.” Closer examination shows, however, that the alleged identity of phraseology is a mistake. Talmudic literature knows nothing of aclassof D'IDD DTOJ — neither this phrase nor an equivalent occurs — not even in “ Ab. R. N.” i. 1, though the error ap- pears to have originated in the words vn DTOJ used there. Nor is the usage identical : TJ1 does not mean “ conceal ” (anoKprirTuv translates not but IHD and its synonyms), but “store away ”; it is used only of things intrinsically precious or sacred. As applied to books, it is used only of books which are, after all, included in the Jewish canon, never of the kind of literature to which the Church Fathers give the name “ Apocrypha ”; these are rather D'JIV'nn DnSD (Yer. Sanh. x. 1, 28«), or DTOH 'IDD- The only excep- tion is a reference to Sirach. The Book of (magical) Cures which Hezekiah put away (Pes. iv. 9) was doubtless attributed to Solomon. This being the state of the facts, it is doubtful whether there is any connection between the use of UJ and that of an6npv<po<;.

§ III. Lists of Apocrypha ; Classification.

The following is a brief descriptive catalogue of writings which have been at some time or in some quarters regarded as sacred scripture, but are not in- cluded in the Jewish (and Protestant) canon. For more particular information about these works, and for the literature, the reader is referred to the special articles on the books severally.

First, then, there are the books which are com- monly found in the Greek and Latin Bibles, but are not included in the Hebrew canon, and are hence rejected by Protestants; to these, as has already been said, Protestants give the name “ Apocrypha ” specifically. These are (following the order and with the titles of the English translation): I Esdras; II Esdras; Tobit; Judith; The Rest of the Chapters of the Book of Esther; Wisdom of Solomon; Wis- dom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus; Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah; Song of the Three Holy Children; History of Susanna; Destruc- tion of Bel and the Dragon; Prayer of Manasses; I Maccabees; II Maccabees. These, with the excep- tion of I, II (III, IV) Esdras and the Prayer of Ma- nasses, are canonical in the Roman Church.

Secondly, books which were pronounced apocry- phal by the ancient Church. Of these we possess sev- eral catalogues, the most important of which are the Stichometry of Nicephorus; the Atlianasian Synop- sis; and an anonymous list extant in several manu- scripts, first edited by Montfaucon (see Schiirer, “Gesch.” 3d ed., iii. 262 et seq.); further a passage in the “Apostolical Constitutions ”(vi. 16), and the so- called Decree of Pope Gelasius (“ Corpus Juris Ca- nonici,” iii. Distinctio 15). References in the Fathers add some titles, and various Oriental versions give us a knowledge of other writings of the same kind.

A considerable part of this literature has been pre- served, and fresh discoveries almost every year prove how extensive and how popular it once was.

A satisfactory classification of these writings is hardly possible; probably the most convenient scheme is to group them under the chief types of Biblical literature to which they are severally re- lated— viz. :

1. Historical, including history proper, story books, and haggadic narrative.

2. Prophetic, including apocalypses.

3. Lyric ; psalms.

4. Didactic; proverbs and other forms of “wis- dom.”

The assignment of a book to one or another of these divisions must often be understood as only a potion; a writing which is chiefly narrative may contain prophecy or apocalypse; one which is pri- marily prophetic may exhibit in parts affinity to the didactic literature.

§ IV. Historical Apocrypha. 1. First Mac- cabees. A history of the rising of the Jews under the leadership of Mattathias and his sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and of the progress of the struggle down to the death of Simon, covering thus the period from 175-135 b.c. The book was written in Hebrew, but is extant only in Greek and in trans- lations made from the Greek.

2. Second Maccabees. Professedly an abridgment of a larger work in five books by Jason of Cyrene. It begins with the antecedents of the conflict with Syria, and closes with the recovery of Jerusalem by Judas after his victory over Nicanor. The work was written in Greek, and is much inferior in his- torical value to I Macc. Prefixed to the book are two letters addressed to the Jews in Egypt on the observance of the Feast of Dedication (rODri).

3. First Esdras. In the Latin Bible, Third Esdras. A fragment of the oldest Greek version (used by Josephus) of Chronicles (including Ezra and Nehe- miah), containing I Clrron. xxxv.-Neli. viii. 13, in a different, and in part more original, order than the Hebrew text and with one considerable addition, the story of the pages of King Darius (iii. 1-v. 6). The book is printed in an appendix to the official editions of the Vulgate (after the New Testament), but is not recognized by the Roman Church as canonical.

4. Additions to Daniel, a. The story of Susanna and the elders, prefixed to the book, illustrating Daniel’s discernment in judgment.

b. The destruction of Bel and the Dragon, ap- pended after ch. xii., showing how Daniel proved to Cyrus that the Babylonian gods were no gods.

c. The Song of the three Jewish Youths in the fiery furnace, inserted in Dan. iii. between verses 23 and 24.

These additions are found in both Greek transla- tions of Daniel (Septuagint and Theodotion); for the original language and for the Hebrew and Aramaic versions of the stories, see Daniel.

5. Additions to Esther. In the Greek Bible, enlarge- ment on motives suggested by the original story: a. The dream of Mordecai and his discovery of the conspiracy, prefixed to the book; the interpretation follows x. 3; b. Edict for the destruction of the Jews, after iii. 13; c., d. Prayers of Mordecai and Esther,

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Apocrypha

after iv. 17; e. Esther’s reception by the king, taking the place of v. 1 in the Hebrew ; /. Edict permitting the Jews to defend themselves, after viii. 12. In the Vulgate these additions are detached'from their con- nection and brought together in an appendix to the book, with a note remarking that they are not found in the Hebrew.

6. Prayer of Manasses. Purports to be the words of the prayer spoken of in II Cliron. xxxiii. 18 etseq. ; probably designed to stand in that place. In many manuscripts of the Greek Bible it is found among the pieces appended to the Psalms; in the Vulgate it is printed after the New Testament with III and IV Esd., and like them is not canonical.

7. Judith. Story of the deliverance of the city of Betliulia by a beautiful widow, who by a ruse deceives and kills Holophernes, the commander of the besieging army. The book was written in He- brew, but is preserved only in Greek or translations from the Greek; an Aramaic Targum was known to Jerome.

8. Tobit. The scene of this tale, with its attract- ive pictures of Jewish piety and its interesting glimpses of popular superstitions, is laid in the East (Nineveh, Ecbatana); the hero is an Israelite of the tribe of Naphtali, who was carried away in the deportation by Shalmaneser (“ Enemessar ”). The story is related in some way to that of Ahikak.

9. Third Maccabees. (See Maccabees, Books of.) A story of the persecution of the Egyptian Jews by Ptolemy Philopator after the defeat of Antiochus at Raphia in 217 b.c. ; their steadfastness in their relig- ion, and the miraculous deliverance God wrought for them. The book, which may be regarded as an Alexandrian counterpart of Esther, is found in manu- scripts of the Septuagint, but is not canonical in any branch of the Christian Church.

§ V. Historical Pseudepigrapha. The books named above are all found in the Greek and Latin Bibles and in the Apocrypha of the Protestant versions. We proceed now to other writings of the same general class, commonly called “ Pseud- epigraph a.”

10. The Book of Jubilees, called also Leptogenesis (“The Little Genesis”), probably KBIT JVtWQ, in distinction, not from the canonical Genesis, but from a larger Midrash, a rQ"i 3- It contains a haggadic treatment of the history of the Patriarchs as well as of the history of Israel in Egypt, ending with the institution of the Passover, based on Gen. and Ex. i.-xii. It is a free reproduction of the Biblical nar- rative, with extensive additions of an edifying char- acter, exhortations, predictions, and the like. It gets the name “ Book of Jubilees ” from the elaborate chro- nology, in which every event is minutely reckoned out in months, days, and years of the Jubilee period. The whole is in the form of a revelation made through an angel to Moses on Mt. Sinai, from which some writers were led to call the book the “ Apocalypse of Moses.” (See Apocalypse, § V. 10.) It was written in Hebrew, probably in the first century b.c., but is now extant only in Ethiopic and in fragments of an old Latin translation, both made from an intermedi- ate Greek version.

Brief mention may be made here of several similar works containing Haggadah of early Hebrew history.

a. “ Liber Antiquitatum Biblacarum,” attributed to Philo. This was first published, with some other works of Philo, at Basel in 1527 (see Cohn, in " Jew. Quart. Rev.” 1898, x. 277 et seq.; Schurer, “ Gescb.” 3d ed., iii. 541 ct seq., additional literature). Extends from Adam to the death of Saul, with omissions and additions — genealogical, legendary, and rhetorical — speeches, prophecies, prayers, etc. The patriarchal age is despatched very briefly ; the Exodus, on the contrary, and the stories of the Judges, are much expanded. The author deals more freely with the Biblical narrative than Jubilees, and departs from it much more widely. The work is preserved in a Latin transla- tion made from Greek ; but it is highly probable that the orig- inal language was Hebrew, and that it was written at a time not very remote from the common era. Considerable portions of it are incorporated— under the name of Philo— in the Hebrew beok, of which Gaster has published a translation under the title “ Chronicles of Jerahmeel ” (see Gaster, l.c., Introduction, pp. xxx. et seq., and below, d).

b. Later works which may be compared with this of Philo are the riB>D Sip D'O'n nr, -\!S”n -\ed, and the iyD'1 mt, on which see the respective articles.

e. To a different type of legendary history belongs the He- brew Yosippon (q. v.).

d. The “Chronicles of Jerahmeel,” translated by Gaster from a unique manuscript in the Bodleian (1899), are professedly compiled from various sources ; they contain large portions ex- cerpted from the Greek Bible, Philo (see above), and “Yo- sippon,” as well as writings like the Pirke de R. Eliezer, etc.

e. Any complete study of this material must include also the cognate Hellenistic writings, such as the fragments of Eupole- musand Artapanus (see Freudenthal, "HellenistischeStudien") and the legends of the same kind in Josephus.

§ VI. Books of the Antediluvians. The Book of J ubilees makes repeated mention of books contain- ing the wisdom of the antediluvians (e.ff., Enoch, iv. 17 et seq.-, Noah, x. 12 et seq.) which were in the possession of Abraham and his descendants; also of books in which was preserved the family law of the Patriarchs (compare xli. 28) or their prophecies (xxxii. 24 et seq., xlv. 16). These are all in the literal sense “apocryphal,” that is, esoteric, scriptures. A considerable number of writings of this sort have been preserved or are known to us from ancient lists and references; others contain entertaining or edify- ing embellishments of the Biblical narratives about these heroes. Those which are primarily prophetic or apocalyptic are enumerated elsewhere (x., xi.); the following are chiefly haggadic:

11. Life of Adam and Eve. This is essentially a Jewish work, preserved — in varying recensions — in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Armenian. It resembles the Testament literature (see below) in being chiefly occupied with the end of Adam’s life and the burial of Adam and Eve. According to an introductory note in the manuscripts, the story was revealed to Moses, whence the inappropriate title “Apocalypse of Moses.” On the apocryphal Adam books see Adam, Book of.

Other apocryphal books bearing the name of Adam are: The Book of Adam and Eve, or the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, extant in Arabic and Ethiopic; and The Testament of Adam, in Syriac and Arabic. Both these are Christian off- shoots of the Adam romance. Apocalypses of Adam are mentioned by Epiphanius; the Gelasian Decree names a book on the Daughters of Adam, and one called the Penitence of Adam.

Seven Books of Seth are said by Epiphanius (“Adversus Haereses,” xxxix. 5; compare xxvi. 8; also Hippolytus, “Refutatio,” v. 22; see also Jo- sephus, “Ant.”i. 2, § 3) to have been among the scriptures of the Gnostic sect of Setliians.

Apocrypha

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Ou the apocryphal books of Enoch see Apoca- lypse, § Y. , and Enoch, Book of.

The Samaritan author, a fragment of whose writing has been preserved by Eusebius (“ Praep. Ev.” ix. 17) under the name of Eupolemus, speaks of revelations by angels to Methuselah, which had been preserved to his time. A Book of Lamech is named in one of our lists of Apocrypha.

Books of Noah are mentioned in Jubilees (x. 12, xxi. 10). Fragments of an Apocalypse of Noah are incorporated in different places in Enoch (which see). A book bearing the name of Noria, the wife of Noah, was current among certain Gnostics (Epi- phanius, “Adv. Hiereses,” xxvi. 1). Shem transmits the books of his father, Noah (Jubilees, x. 14); other writings are ascribed to him by late authors. Ham was the author of a prophecy cited by Isidore, the son of Basilides (Clemens Alexandrinus, “ Stromata,” vi. 6); according to others he was the inventor of magic (identified with Zoroaster; Clementine, “Rec- ognitiones,” iv. 27).

§ VII. Testaments. A special class of apocry- phal literature is made up of the so-called “ Testa- ments ” of prominent figures in Bible history. Sug- gested, doubtless, by such passages as the Blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix.), the Blessing of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.), the parting speeches of Moses (Deut. iv., xxix. et seq.) and Joshua (Josh, xxiii., xxiv.), etc., the Testaments narrate the close of the hero’s life, sometimes with a retrospect of his history, last coun- sels and admonitions to his children, and disclosures of the future. These elements are present in varying proportions, but the general type is well marked.

12. Testament of Abraham. Edited in Greek (two recensions) by M. Ii. James, “Texts and Studies,” ii. 2; in Rumanian by Gaster, in “Proc. of Society of Biblical Archeology,” 1887, ix. 195 et seq.\ see also Kohler, in “Jew. Quart. Rev.” 1895, vii. 581 et seq. (See Abraham, Testament of, called also Apocalypse of Abraham). Narrative of the end of Abraham’s life ; his refusal to follow Michael, who is sent to him; his long negotiations with the Angel of Death. At his request, Michael shows him, while still in the body, this world and all its doings, and conducts him to the gate of heaven. The book is thus mainly Haggadali, with a little apocalypse in the middle.

The Slavonic Apocalypse of Abraham (ed. by Bonwetsch, “Studien zur Geschichte der Theologie und Kirche,” 1897), translated from the Greek, gives the story of Abraham’s conversion; the second part enlarges on the vision of Abraham in Gen. xv.

13. Testaments of Isaac and Jacob. Preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic. They are upon the same pat- tern as the Testament of Abraham; each includes an apocalypse in which the punishment of the wicked and the abode of the blessed are exhibited. The moral exhortation which properly belongs to the type is lacking in the Testament of Abraham, but is found in the other two.

14. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. The part- ing admonitions of the twelve sons of Jacob to their children. Each warns against certain particular sins and commends the contrary' virtues, illustrating and enforcing the moral by the example or experience of the speaker. Thus, Gad warns against hatred, Issachar shows the beauty of simple-mindedness,

Joseph teaches the lesson of chastity. In some (e.ff., in the Testament of Joseph) the legendary narrative of the patriarch’s life fills a larger space, in others ( e.g ., Benjamin) direct ethical teaching predominates.

The eschatological element is also present in vary- ing proportions — predictions of the falling away in the last days and the evils that will prevail ; the judg- ment of God on the speaker’s posterity for their sins (e.g., Levi, xiv. et seq. ; Judah, xviii. 22 et seq. ; Zeb- ulun, ix.); and the succeeding Messianic age (Levi, xviii. ; Judah, xxiv. et seq. ; Simeon, vi. ; Zebulun, ix. et seq.). A true apocalypse is found in the Test, of Levi, ii. et seq. (see Apocalypse). This eschato- logical element is professedly derived from a book written by Enoch (e.g., Levi, x., xiv., xvi. ; Judah, viii. ; Simeon, v., etc.). The work is substantially J ewish ; the Christian interpolations, though numer- ous, are not very extensive, and in general are easily recognizable.

A Hebrew Testament of Naphtali has been pub- lished by Gaster (“ Proceedings of Society' of Biblical Archeology,” December, 1893; February', 1894; see also “Chron. of Jeralimeel,” pp. 87 et seq.), and is regarded by' the editor and byr Resell (“ Studien und Kritiken,”1899,pp. 206 etseq.) as the original of which the Greek Testament is a Christian recension.

15. Testament of Job. When the end of his life is at hand, Job narrates to his children the history of his trials, beginning with the cause of Satan’s ani- mosity' toward him. After parting admonitions (45), he divides his possessions among his sons, and gives to his three daughters girdles of wonderful properties(46 etseq.). The book is a Haggadali of the story of Job, exaggerating his wealth and power, his good works, and his calamities, through all of which he maintains unshaken his confidence in God. There are no long arguments, as in the poem ; the friends do not appear as defenders of God’s justice — the problem of the- odicy' is not mooted — they' try Job with questions (see 36 et seq.). Eliliu is inspired by' Satan, and is not forgiven with the others. See Kohler, in “Semitic Studies in Memory of Alexander Koliut, ” pp. 264-338 and 611, 612, and Janies, in “Apocrypha Anecdota,” ii. 104 et seq.).

16. Testament of Moses. The patristic lists of Apoc- rypha contain, in close proximity, the Testament of Moses and the Assumption of Moses. It is probable that the two were internally connected, and that the former has been preserved in our Assumption of Moses, the extant part of which is really a Testa- ment— a prophetic-apocalyptic discourse of Moses to Joshua. See below, § x. 2.

17. Testament of Solomon. Last words of Solomon, closing with a confession of the sins of his old age un- der the influence of the Jebusite, Shulamite. It is in the main a magical book in narrative form, telling how Solomon got the magic seal ; by' it learned the names and powers of the demons and the names of the angels by whom they are constrained, and put them to his service in building the Temple; besides other wonderful things which he accomplished through his power over the demons. (See Fleck, “ Wissenschaftliche Reise,” ii. 3, 111 et seq.) A translation into English by' Conybeare was given in “Jewish Quart. Rev.” 1899, xi. 1-45.

The Gelasian Decree names also a “ Contradictio

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Apocrypha

Salomonis,” whicli may liave described his contest in wisdom with Hiram, a frequent theme of later writers.

A Testament of Hezekiah is cited by Cedrenus; but the passage quoted is found in the Ascension of Isaiah.

§ VIII. Relating to Joseph, Isaiah, and Ba- ruch. Other Apocrypha are the following:

18. Story of Aseneth. A romantic tale, narrating how Aseneth, the beautiful daughter of Potiphar, priest of On, became the wife of Joseph; how the king’s son, who had desired her for himself, tried to destroy Joseph, and how he was foiled. The romance exists in various languages and recensions. The Greek text was published by Batiffol, Paris, 1889.

A Prayer of Joseph is named in the anonymous list of Apocrypha, and is quoted by Origen and Proco- pius. In these fragments Jacob is the speaker.

19. Ascension of Isaiah, or Vision of Isaiah. Origen speaks of a Jewish apocryphal work describing the death of Isaiah. Such a martyrium is preserved in the Ethiopic Ascension of Isaiah, the first part of which tells how Manasseh, at the instigation of a Samaritan, had Isaiah sawn asunder. The second part, the Ascension of Isaiah to heaven in the 20th year of Hezekiah, and what he saw and heard there, is Christian, though perhaps based on a Jewish vi- sion. Extensive Christian interpolations occur in the first part also. A fragment of the Greek text is reproduced in Grenfell and Hunt, “The Amherst Papyri,” London, 1900.

20. The Rest of the Words of Baruch, or Paralipomena of Jeremiah. (Ceriani, “ Monumenta, ” v. 1, 9 et seq. ; J. Rendel Harris, “Rest of the Words of Baruch,” 1889; Dillmann, “ Chrestomathia HSthiopica,” pp. I et seq. ; Greek and Ethiopic.) Narrates what befell Baruch and Abimelecli (Ebed-melech) at the fall of Jerusalem. Sixty-six years after, they sent a letter by an eagle to Jeremiah in Babylon. He leads a com- pany of Jews back from Babylonia; only those who are willing to put away their Babylonian wives are allowed to cross the Jordan; the others eventually become the founders of Samaria. Jeremiah is spir- ited away. After three days, returning to the body, he prophesies the coming of Christ and is stoned to death by his countrymen.

§ IX. Lost Books. Other haggadic works named in the Gelasian Decree are : the Book of Og, the Giant, “whom the heretics pretend to have fought with a dragon after the Hood”; perhaps the same as the Manichean T lyavretoc jiijiTiog (Pliotius, “Cod.” 85), or Tlpayyareta ruv Yijavruv ; The Penitence of Jannes and Jambres. (See Iselin, in “Zeitschrift fur Wissensch. Tlieologie,” 1894, pp. 321 et seq.) Both of these may well have been ultimately of Jewish origin.

§ X. Prophetical Apocrypha. 1. Baruch. Purporting to be written by Baruch, son of Neriah, the disciple of Jeremiah, after the deportation to Babylon. The book is not original, drawing its motives chiefly from Jeremiah and Isaiah xl. et seq. ; affinity to the Wisdom literature is also marked in some passages, especially in ch. iii.

The Epistle of Jeremiah to the captives in Babylon, which is appended to Baruch, and counts as the sixth chapter of that book, is a keen satire on idolatry.

2. Assumption of Moses. See above, Testament of

Moses (£ VII. 16). What now remains of this work, in an old Latin version, is prophetic in character, con- sisting of predictions delivered by Moses to Joshua when he had installed him as his successor. Moses foretells in brief outline the history of the people to the end of the kingdom of Judah; then, more fully, the succeeding times down to the successors of Herod the Great, and the Messianic age which ensues. It is probable that the lost sequel contained the As- sumption of Moses, in which occurred the conflict — referred to in Jude 9 — between Michael and Satan for the possession of Moses’ body.

3. Eldad and Medad. Under this name an apocry- phal book is mentioned in our lists, and quoted twice in the “Shepherd of Hennas” (ii. 34). It contained the prophecy of the two elders named in Num. xi. 26.

§ XI. Apocalypses. 5 lost of the prophetical Apocrypha are apocalyptic in form. To this class belong; Enoch, The Secrets of Enoch, IV Esd., the Apocalypses of Baruch (Greek and Syriac), Apoca- lypse of Zcphaniah, Apocalypse of Elijah, and others (see Apocalyfsk, and the special articles). Apoca- lyptic elements have been noted above in the As- sumption of Moses, the Ascension of Isaiah, the Tes- taments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and others.

§ XII. Lyrical Apocrypha. 1. Psalm cli., in the Greek Bible; attributed to David, “when he had fought in single combat with Goliath.”

2. Psalms of Solomon. Eighteen in number; included in some manuscripts of the Greek Bible, but noted in the catalogues as disputed or apocryphal. Though ascribed to Solomon in the titles, there is no internal evidence that the author, or authors, designed them to be so attributed. They were written in Hebrew — though preserved only in Greek — in Palestine about the middle of the first century n.c., and give most important testimony to the inner character of the religious belief of the time and to the vitality of the Messianic hope, as well as to the strength of party or sectarian animosity. The five Odes of Solomon in “Pistis Sophia” are of Christian (Gnostic) origin.

3. Five apocryphal psalms in Syriac, edited by Wright (“ Proceedings of Society of Biblical Archeol- ogy,” 1887, ix. 257-266). The first, is Ps. cli. (supra, § 1); it is followed by (2) a prayer of Hezekiah; (3) a prayer when the people obtain leave from Cyrus to return ; and (4, 5) a prayer of David during his con- flict with the lion and the wolf, and thanksgiving after his victory.

§ XIII. Didactic Apocrypha. 1. The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach (in the Latin Bible entitled Ecclesiasticus). Proverbs and aphorisms for men’s guidance in various stations and circumstances; a counterpart to the Proverbs of Solomon. The author was a native of Jerusalem, and wrote in Hebrew ; his work was translated into Greek by his grandson soon after 132 b.c. The Syriac translation was also made from the Hebrew, and recently considerable parts of the Hebrew text itself have been recovered. The book is included in the Christian Bible — Greek, Latin, Syriac, etc. — but was excluded from the Jewish Canon (Tosef., Yad. ii. 13 et seq.). Many quotations in Jewish literature prove, however, its continued popularity.

2. Wisdom of Solomon, 2n<pta lo/nuuvn^. Written in Greek, probably in Alexandria; a representative of

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Hellenistic “Wisdom.” Solomon, addressing the ru- lers of the earth, exhorts them to seek wisdom, and warns them of the wickedness and folly of idolatry. Noteworthy is the warm defense of the immortality of the soul, in which the influence of Greek philo- sophical ideas is manifest, as, indeed, it is through- out the book.

3. Fourth Maccabees. The title is a misnomer; and the attribution of the work to Flavius Josephus is equally erroneous. The true title is Ilepi avroiepd- ropoc /.oyiapov, “On the Autonomy of Reason.” It is an anonymous discourse on the supremacy of relig- ious intelligence over the feelings. This supremacy is proved, among other things, by examples of con- stancy in persecution, especially by the fortitude of Eleazar and the seven brothers (II Macc. vi. 18, vii. 41). The work was written in Greek; it is found in some manuscripts of the Septuagiut, but is not canonical.

§ XIV. Apocrypha in the Talmud. There are no Jewish catalogues of Apocrypha corresponding to the Christian lists cited above; but we know that the canonicity of certain writings was disputed in the first and second centuries, and that others were expressly and authoritatively declared not to be sa- cred scripture, while some are more vehemently inter- dicted— to read them is to incur perdition. The con- troversies about Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon will be discussed in the article Canon, where also the proposed “ withdrawal ” of Proverbs, Ezekiel, and some other books will be considered. Here it is suf- ficient to say that the school of Shammai favored ex- cluding Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon from the list of inspired scriptures, but the final decision included them in the canon.

Sirach, on the other hand, was excluded, appar- ently as a recent work by a known author; and a general rule was added that no books more modern than Sirach were sacred scripture.

The same decision excluded the Gospels and other heretical (Christian) scriptures (Tosef., Yad. ii. 13). These books, therefore, stand in the relation of Apoc- rypha to the Jewish canon.

In Mislmah Sanli. x. 1, R. Akiba adds to the cat- alogue of those Israelites who have no part in the world to come, “the man who reads in the extraneous books” (D'JIVTin D’lSD^), that is, books outside the canon of holy scripture, just as e$u, extnnsecvs, extra, are used by Christian writers (Zalin, “ Gesch. des Neu- testamentliclien Kanons,” i. 1, 126 et serj.). Among these are included the “ books of the heretics” (DTQ), i.e., as in Tosef., Yad. quoted above, the Christians (Bab. Sanli. 100&). Sirach is also named in both Tal- muds, hut the text in the Jerusalem Talmud (Sanli. 28c) is obviously corrupt.

Further, the writings of Ben La'anali (njy^ p) fall under the same condemnation (Yer. Sanli. l.c.)\ the Midrash on Ecclesiastes xii. 12 (Eccl. R.) couples the writings of Ben Tigla (K^iri p) with those of Sirach, as bringing mischief into the house of him who owns them. What these books were is much disputed (see the respective articles). Another title which has given rise to much discussion is nSD DTton or DITDH ( sifre ha-meram or ha-merom), early and often emended by conjecture to DlVDrt (Home- ros; so Hai Gaon, and others). See Homek in Tai,-

mud. The books of “ Be Abidau, ” about which there is a question in Sliab. 116«, are also obscure.

Bibliography: Texts: The Apocrypha (in the Protestant sense) are found in editions of the Greek Bible ; see espe- cially Swete, The Old Testament in Greek , 2d ed.; sepa- rately, Fritzsche, Libri Apocryphi Veteris Testamenti Gi'ceci , 1871. Of the Pseudepigrapha no comprehensive cor- pus exists ; some of the books are included in the editions of Swete and Fritzsche, above ; and in Hilgenfeld, Memos Ju- dceorum , 1889. see also Fabricius, Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti , 2 vols., 2d ed., Hamburg, 1722, 1723, which is not replaced by any more recent work. For editions (and translations) of most of these writings the literature of the respective articles must be consulted. Translations : The Au- thorized Version may best be used in the edition of C. J. Ball, Variorum Apocrypha , which contains a useful apparatus of various l eadings and renderings ; the Revised Version, Apo- crypha, 1895; Churton, Uncanonical and Apocryphal Scriptures, 1884 ; a revised translation is given also in Bis- sell’s Commentary (see below). Of the highest value is the German translation, with introductions and notes, in Kautzsch, Die Apokryphen und Pseud epigraph en des Altai Testa- ments, 2 vols., 1899. Commentaries: Fritzsche and Grimm, Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handhuch zu den Apokryphen des Alten Bundes, 6 vols., 1851-80 ; Wace (and others), Apoc- rypha, 2 vols.. 1888 (Speaker’s Bible); Bissell, The Apoc- rypha of the Old Testament, 1890 (Lange series).

The most important recent work on this whole literature is Schttrer's Geschichte des Jlldischen Vo Ikes, 3d ed., vol. iii. (Eng. tr. of 2d ed.: Jew. People in the Time of Jesus Christ), where also very full references to the literature will be found. T. G. F. M

APOLANT, EDUARD : Ge rman physician ; born at Jastrow, city in Westpreussen, Prussia, Aug. 21, 1847. He was educated at the gymnasium at Deutsch-Krone and at the University of Berlin, where he received the degree of doctor of medicine in 1870. He was an assistant surgeon in the Franco- Prussian war (1870-71), and, on returning to Berlin, engaged in practise in that city. In 1896 he re- ceived the title of “ Sanitatsrath. ”

Apolant has contributed numerous papers to Vir- chow’s “Archiv flir Pathologische Auatomie und Physiologic und fur Klinische Medizin ” (“ Ueber das Verhaltniss der Weissen und Roteu Blutkorper- clien bei Eiterungeu,” etc.); the “Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift " (“Ueber Applikation von Karbol- saureutnschlage bei Pocken,” etc.), and other medical journals.

Bibliography: Wrede, Das Geistige Berlin, iii. 3, Berlin, 1898.

s. F. T. H.

APOLLINARIS or APOLLIN ARIUS, CLAUDIUS : Bishop of Hierapolis, Phrygia, in 170 ; author of an “ Apology for the Christian Faith,” which he addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. He wrote also two books “ Pros Ioudai- ous” (Against the Jews) and other works against the pagans, and opposing the Moutanist and the Encratite heresies, besides other books, all of which are now lost.

Bibliography : Eusebius. Hist. Eccl. iv. 27, v. 19; Jerome, De Viris I Ihlst f ilms, etc., p. 28 ; Epistolce, p.84; Fabricius, Bib- Hath. Grceca, vii. 180; Tillemout, Memoires, t. i., pt. ii.

T. F. H. V.

APOLLONIUS : One of the Judeans who, about 130 b.c., went to Rome to make a covenant or league of friendship with the Romans. He was called by Josephus “the son of Alexander.” See John Hyr- canus.

Bibliography : Josephus, Ant. xiii. 9, § 2, xiv. 10, § 22.

G. L. G.

APOLLONIUS or APOLLONIUS MOLON :

Greek rhetorician and auti-Jewish writer; flourished

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Apollos

in the first century b.c. He is usually, but not always, designated by the name of his father, Molon. He was called by his patronymic mainly to distin- guish him from his somewhat older contemporary Apollonius Malachos. Apollonius Molon was still praised as a distinguished master of the art of speech about the year 75 b.c. Josephus, however, concerns himself with him simply as one of the most promi- nent and most pernicious anti-Jewish writers.

Born at Alabanda, in Caria, Apollonius afterward emigrated to Rhodes, wherefore Cicero styles him “Molon Rhodius ” (“Brutus,” ch. lxxxix.). He soon eclipsed his contemporaries both as a master of ora- tory and as a practical advocate, and had as pupils both Cicero and Julius Caesar.

It was at Rhodes, no doubt, that Apollonius ap- propriated the Judaeophobic ideas of the Syrian stoic Posidonius (135-51 b.c.), who lived in that city, and thence circulated throughout the Greek and Roman world several wild calumnies concerning the Jews, such as the charges that they worshiped Follower an ass in their temple, that they sacri- of ficed annually on their altar a specially Posidonius, fattened Greek, and that they were filled with hatred toward eveiy other nationality, particularly the Greeks. These and sim- ilar malevolent fictions regarding the Jews were adopted by Apollonius, who, induced by the fact that the Jews in Rhodes and in Caria were very numerous (compare I Macc. xv. 16-24), composed an anti-Jew- ish treatise, in which all these accusations found em- bodiment. While Posidonius had confined himself to incidental allusions to the Jews in the course of his history of the Seleucidae (compare C. Muller, “ Frag. Hist. Gnec.” iii. 245 et seq.), Apollonius outdid his master by undertaking a separate book on the sub- ject. Such appears to have been the character of his treatise, which, according to Alexander Polyhistor, was a avaKEvt/ (Eusebius, “ Pneparatio E vangelica, ” ix . 19), a polemic treatise — as Schi'irer renders the phrase — against the Jews. The polemic passages, however, must have been interwoven with a general presenta- tion of a Jewish theme — probably a history of the origin of the Jewish people. For it is the complaint of Josephus that Apollonius, unlike Apion, far from massing all his anti-Jewish charges in one passage, had preferred to insult the Jews in various manners and in numerous places throughout his work ( l.c . ii. 14). The assumption that Apollonius’ book was of a historic character is confirmed by the fragment in Alexander Polyhistor, which gives the genealogy of the Jews from the Deluge to Moses, and by an allu- sion of Josephus which indicates that the exodus from Egypt was also dealt with therein (l.c. ii. 2). In con- nection with the exodus, Apollonius gave circulation to the malicious fable that the Jews had been expelled from Egypt owing to a shameful malady from which they suffered, while he took occasion to blacken the character of Moses also and to belittle his law, char- acterizing the lawgiver of the Jews as a sorcerer and his work as devoid of all moral worth. Besides, lie heaped many unjust charges upon the Jews, re- proaching them for not worshiping the same gods as the other peoples (l.c. ii. 7) and for disinclination to as- sociate with the followers of other faiths (ii. 36). He thus represented them as atheists and misanthropes,

and depicted them withal as men who were either cowards or fanatics, the most untalented among all barbarians, who had done nothing in furtherance of the common welfare of the human race (ii. 14). No wonder these groundless charges excited the anger of Josephus, who believed that they corrupted and misled the judgment of Apion (l.c. ii. 7, 15 et seq.), and who therefore zealously devoted the entire second part of his treatise against Apion to a refutation of Apollonius. The latter was thus paid back in his own coin. Josephus does not hesitate to accuse him of crass stupidity, vaingloriousness, and an immoral life (l.c. ii. 36, 37). See Apion.

Bibliography: C. Muller. Fragmenta Historicorum G-rceco- rum , iii. 208 et seq.; J.G.Muller, Des Flavins Josephus Schrift- gegen den Apion, p. 230, Basel, 1877 ; Paulv-Wissowa, Real- Encyc. ii. s.v. ; Gratz, Gesch. dec Juden, 3d ed., iii. 347 et seq. ; Schtirer, Gesch . 3d ed.. iii. 400-403; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. dev Juden in Horn, i. 83; Th. Reinach, Textes d' Au- teurs Grecx et Romains Relatifs au Judaimne, pp. 80 et seq.

G. II G. E.

APOLLONIUS OF TYANA : Pythagorean philosopher and necromancer; born about the year 3 b.c. ; died, according to some sources, in the thirty- eighth year of his age. In Arabic literature his name is cited in the form “ Balinas ” or “ Belenus,” which has often been mistaken for “Pliny.” He is mentioned in connection with magical writings, and is called by the Arabs Sahib al-Talismat (“The Au- thor of Talismans”). They attribute to Apollonius “ Risalah fi Tathir al-Ruhamiyat ti al-Markabat,” a work that treats of the influence of pneumatic agen- cies in the world of sense, and which also deals with talismans. An introduction (“ Mebo ”) to this treatise on talismans, “Iggeret al-Talasm,” was composed by au anonymous writer ; it is found in Steinschueider MS., No. 29. It is full of Arabic words, and contains a few Romance ones also. The translator saysat the end that the whole book is of no value, and that he has translated (or copied) it merely as a warning against “serving strange gods.” It is probable that a copy of this translation existed in the library of Leon Mosconi (Majorca, 14th century), where it seems to occur under the title “Bel Enus” — No. 37 of the catalogue (“Rev. Et. Juives,” xxxix. 256. xl 65). It is also cited by Joseph Nasi (16th century) and perhaps by Abba Mari. According to Johanan Allemanno (died 1500), Solomon ben Nathan Orgueiri (of Aix, Provence, about 1390) translated from the Latin another work on magic by Apollonius. The Hebrew title of this second work wasnioE'lO n3N^D (“ Intellectual Art ”) ; fragments of it are found in Schonblum MS., No. 79.

Bibliography : For Apollonius and his supposed writings see J. Miller, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopitdie dev t’lassi- schen AUerthumswissenschaft, iii. 148 et seq.’, and Got- tbeil, in Z. D. M. G. xlvi. 466; on the Arabic and Hebrew translations see Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. § 320 ( = Z. D. M. G. xlv. 439 et seq.) ; Fiirst, Canon ties A. T. p. 99, at- tempted to identify Apollonius with Ben I.a'anali, whose wri- tings were condemned (Yer. Sanh. xi. 28 a).

G.

APOLLOS : A learned Jew of Alexandria, and colaborer of Paul. Of him the following is told (Acts xviii. 24-28): He came (about 56) to Ephesus, as “an eloquent man and mighty in the Scriptures,” to preach and to teach in the synagogue; and his fervor of spirit and boldness of speech attracted the

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attention of Aquila and Priscilla — Jews who had espoused the cause of the new Christian faith iu Corinth. They found him not sufficiently informed in the new doctrine; for he knew “only the baptism of John ” when he spoke to the people of “ the way of the Lord.” So they expounded the way of God to him more fully; and, turned into a firmer be- liever in Jesus as the Messiah, he went to Acliaia, where he converted the Jews to his new faith by his arguments from Scriptures. This is illustrated by another story which immediately follows: While Apollos was still at Corinth, Paul found in Ephesus about twelve disciples of John the Baptist who had never heard of the Holy Ghost, but had undergone baptism for the sake of repentance. Paul succeeded in baptizing them anew in the name of Jesus; and then, after “Paul had laid his hands upon them, the Holy Ghost came on them; and they spake with tongues, and prophesied ” (Acts xix. 1-6).

The sect, then, to which Apollos, as well as these twelve men of Ephesus, belonged, were simply Bap- tists, like John; preaching the doctrine of the “Two Ways ” — the Way of Life and of Death — as taught in the “Didache,” the propaganda literature of the Jews before the rise of Christianity. They were thenceforward won over to the new Christian sect probably under the influence of such ecstatic states of mind as are described here and in the writings of Paul.

Whether Apollos belonged to the class of thinkers like Philo or not is, of course, a matter of con- jecture. But it is learned from Paul’s own words (I Cor. i. 10) that while working on the same lines as Paul, Apollos differed essentially from him in his teachings. Four different parties had arisen there : one adhering to Paul, another to Apollos, a third to Peter, and the fourth calling itself simply “of the Christ.” “Who, then,” says he, “is Paul, and who is Apollos, but ministers by whom ye believed, even as the Lord gave to every man? I have planted, Apollos watered . . . we are laborers to- gether. . . . Let no man deceive himself. If any man among you seemeth to be wise in this world, let him become a fool that he may be wise. . . . Whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present, or things to come; all are yours; and ye are Christ’s; and Christ is God’s” (I Cor. iii. 5-23). Evidently Apollos be- trayed more of that wisdom which Alexandrian philosophers gloried in. Wherefore, Paul contends that “not with wisdom of words” (I Cor. i. 17) was he sent to preach the gospel. . . . “The world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the fool- ishness of preaching to save them that believe. For the Jews require a sign, and the Greeks seek after wisdom” (ib. 21, 22). Originally the people of Cor- inth were, according to I Cor. xii. 2, not Jews, but Gentiles. It is, therefore, easy to understand why Apollos’ preaching appealed to them far more than Paul’s. Still, the difference between the two “apos- tles” (I Cor. iv. 9) was not of a nature to keep them apart ; for Paul, toward the close of his letter to the Corinthians, says : “ As touching our brother Apollos, I greatly desired him to come unto you : ... he will come when he shall have convenient time” (I Cor. xvi. 12). We have reason to ascribe to Apollos some

influence in the direction which led to a blending of the Philonic Logos with the Jewish idea of the Mes- siah— a Hellenization of the Christian belief in the sense of John’s Gospel; though many critics since Luther are disposed to attribute to him the Epistle to the Hebrews.

Bibliography: Weizsacker, Das Apostolische Zeitaltcr, p. 268; Blass, Commentary on Acts, pp. 201, 203; Friedlander, Der Vorchristliche Judusche Gnosticismus, 1898, p. 37.

T. K.

APOLOGISTS : Men of pious zeal who de- fended both the Jewish religion and the Jewish race against the attacks and accusations of their enemies by writing, either in the form of dissertations or of dialogues, works in defense of the spirit and doc- trines of Judaism, so that its essentials might be placed in the proper light. It was iu the nature of things, therefore, that they were impelled to expose the general weakness of the positions of their antag- onists, and to attack those positions rigorously ; hence the apologies are, at the same time, polemical ar- raignments. So long as the Jewish state was inde- pendent and respected by neighboring peoples, and so long as religious reverence retained its hold upon the heathen nations with whom the Jews came into contact, it was unnecessary to ward off attacks on their nationality, on their religious teachings, or on their manners and customs. They dwelt in harmony with Persians when Cyrus established the Persian empire, and later with Greeks; they dwelt alongside of Partliians and New Persians, and their Judaism received no manner of offense. But when the Jewish state fell into internal decay, and the Greeks, with whom the Jews held the closest rela- tions, lost their reverence for their own deities ; when, furthermore, with the translation of the Bible into Greek, the Hellenes were introduced to a literature that claimed at least equality with their own ; and, finally, when the Egyptians were by that translation informed of the pitiful role their ancestors had played at the birth of the Jewish nation, these peoples felt themselves severely wounded in their national van- ity. It was, accordingly, in Alexandria that anti- Jewish literature originated, to withstand which the Jewish Apologists resident there devoted their energies.

Manetho, an Egyptian temple scribe at Thebes, was the first to assail the Jewish nationality with all manner of fables invented by himself. The First Opportunity to disseminate misinfor- Attacks in mation concerning the Jews had been Egypt by afforded by the Syrian king Antiochus Heathens. Epiphanes, whose wonderful stories concerning his experiences in the Tem- ple of Jerusalem were seized upon and elaborated by the anti-Jewish writers of Alexandria. In this city, the capital of Egypt, dwelt numerous Jews who Avere distinguished for their intellectual activity and moral life, and many Greeks detested the Jews for their difference in moral ideals, founded as they were upon religious codes quite different from their oavii. Alexandria was accordingly the market where un- scrupulous Avriters were certain of finding sale for their multifarious calumnies against the Jewish peo pie. In Alexandria, consequently, the earliest Jew- ish Apologists made their appearance.

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Apologists

The first generation of Jewish Apologists flour- ished from the beginning of the first century b.c. to the middle of the second century of the The common era. In this period are in- First Apol- eluded those Apologists who encoun- ogists. tered the attacks of the ancient hea- thens. The early Greek fashion of writing under a pseudonym had been transplanted to Alexandria; works were issued purporting to be productions of the great men of antiquity. The first Jewish Apologists were, therefore, strictly in the fashion when they used pseudonyms in their replies to the ceaseless libels with which the anti-Jewish wri- ters assailed the religious literature, the manners, and the customs of the Jews. These Apologists drew a picture of the grandeur and moral elevation of Juda- ism, and, in accordance with the prevailing custom, ascribed their writings to heathen poets and prophets. The most important of these apologetic writings are the “ Sibylline Books ” and “ The Wisdom of Solo- mon.” The “Sibylline Books,” composed partly in the middle of the second, partly in the first, century b.c., contrasted the lofty ethics of monotheism and the righteousness and morality of Ju- “ Sibylline daism with the follies of idol-worship, Books” and and with the selfishness and sensual- “ The Wis- ity of heathendom. “The Wisdom of dom of Solomon ” uses still darker colors to Solomon.” paint the immorality and viciousness, the utter corruption and shamelessness of the heathen world, and portrays, in contrast there- with, the moral atmosphere emanating from Jewish religious writings. The author of this book lived probably about the time of the Roman emperor Calig- ula (37-41). Among the Apologists in Alexandria mention must also be made of Philo, one of the most eminent philosophical thinkers of Judaism, who flourished about 40. Philo sought to illustrate to the heathen world the beauty of the Jewish Scriptures by endeavoring to prove that both Judaism and the bet- ter Hellenic thought in the writings of Greek philos- ophers aimed at one and the same mark; that the Jewish prophets and the Greek speculative thinkers strove after one and the same truth, and that, there- fore, the difference between Judaism and Greek phi- losophy was one merely of external appearance or expression.

The best apologetic work of this period, and indeed of any period, is that written in Rome by Flavius Josephus (born about 37), which he entitled “ Against Apion, or Concerning the Ancient State of the Jew- ish Nation.” Apion, who was a contemporary of Philo, had, at the request of several Alexandrians, handed to the emperor Caligula a calumnious memo- rial full of the worst accusations and Josephus, slanders against the Jews. He had simply compiled everything to be found in previous writings of this character, and added to it whatever he could devise in the way of malicious invention. This slanderous petition, no doubt, made its influence felt at the time Josephus was writing his history in Rome, and impelled him to publish his “Apology” (vindication), which con- sisted of two books. He controverts the allegation that the Jews have no history and are a new nation. The sting of the charge came from the circumstance

that, according to the view then prevailing, the re- spectability and dignity of a nation were in direct proportion to its antiquity. He exposes the falsity of the calumnies circulated against Judaism, and illustrates the mental incapacity of his opponents to grasp historical truths. Through the whole work there breathes a spirit of warm admiration for Moses and his civil and religious legislation; it acknowl- edges appreciatively whatever is great and good among all ancient peoples. This “ Apology ” of Jose- phus furnished the model after which the Church fathers patterned all their apologetic treatises, the writing of which they were frequently called upon to undertake in defense of Christianity.

No further apologetics of this period have been preserved, although the venom that Apion injected into the minds of his contemporaries continued to work among Roman writers, who saw in the Jewish nation a Stubborn enemy of Rome and an opponent of the national cult. But in the Talmud and Mid- rash many religious conversations have been pre- served, in which prominent teachers like Johanan ben Zakkai, Joshua ben Hananiah, Akiba, and others de- fend Judaism and its doctrines. Dialogues, such as these, between cultured representatives of Judaism and heathenism, were, as a matter of course, quite free from fanaticism ; they were, in fine, friendly con- tests of wit and wisdom without the least trace of animosity or bitterness.

The second series of Jewish Apologists covered the period from the second to the fifteenth century, and was concerned in repelling the attacks of Christian- ity and, to a small extent, of Islam. Christianity, having received from Judaism its doctrines of pure morality and of love of one's neighbor, was con- strained, in order to furnish grounds for its distinc- tion, to proclaim that it had come into existence to displace, and to fulfil the mission of, Judaism. It endeavored to prove the correetnessof Attacks by this standpoint from t he Bible itself, Christians the very book upon which .1 udaism was and founded. Wherefore Judaism had no

Moham- further reason to exist! The Jews,

medans. however, were not yet ready to accept this decree of self-extinction, nor to permit Christendom to take possession of the relig- ious and ethical ground held by the Jews. Here, then, was an occasion for some very sharp polemics bet ween the offspring and the parent who declined to die. The fact that both sides appealed to the same source of authority — the Scriptures — served also to narrow and intensify the struggle. So long, how- ever, as Christianity refrained from throwing the Brennus-sword of worldly power into the scales, the discussion partook of the same peaceful nature as those friendly passages of arms recorded in the Tal- mud and Midrasliim, and displayed more of the na- ture of good-humored rallying than of serious debate. Jewish scholars, referring to Num. xxiii, 19, expressed their objections to Christianity in the single passage : “ If a man say that he is God, he is deceiving thee ; if he say that God is man, he will repent it. If he claim to ascend to heaven, he may say it, but he shall not do it ”(Yer. Ta’anit i. 1).

But with the growth of political power in the Church, the attacks of the bishops upon Jews and

Apologists

Apoplexy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

10

Judaism took on a harsher animus. The silence of the Jews for several centuries in the face of such at- tacks was a deplorable error, especially in view of the fact that the bitter effects of this anti-Jewisli literature were felt in the keenest degree. This silence can be accounted for only by assuming that the Jews of those days were not afraid of any en- during consequences from these attacks, or from the influence of the Christian propa- Silence of ganda upon their own coreligionists, the Jews. The fundamental principles of Chris- tianity— Trinity, Incarnation, etc. — were deemed by them to stand in such direct con- tradiction to both the spirit and the letter of the Bible that it seemed like a work of supererogation to point «out the contradiction. Aside from this, these attacks were written in Latin or in Greek, familiarity with either of which had been lost by the Jews. Whenever any vernacular discussions, founded upon such material, occurred, the crass ignorance of the Christian clergy of the day reu dered the victory of the Jews an easy one. And it was because the Jews felt so sure of their own ground that they did not think it necessary to de- fend themselves.

So far as ascertained, the first to venture a defense in any degree was Saadia ben Joseph (died 942), who was gaon in Sura and a very prolific writer. In his translation of the Bible into Arabic, and in his commentaries upon it, as well as in his philosophical work, “Ernunot we-De’ot” (written in Arabic and translated into Hebrew by Judith ibn Tibbon), he at- tacked the claims of Christianity and Islam ; the former receiving from his pen greater attention than the latter, because Islam was not so insistent in its missionary zeal as Christianity. Saadia maintained that Judaism would always exist, and that its relig- ious system, which allowed man to reach perfection as nearly as possible, would not be displaced by any other. In any case, Christianity, which transformed mere abstractions into divine personalities, was not qualified to supersede it; nor was Islam, which lacked sufficient proof to displace the undisputed revelation from God on Sinai.

From the period of Saadia polemical passages are encountered in Midrashic works and ritual poems directed against both Christianity and Mohammed- anism; but although such passages usually close with some kind of a defense of Judaism, the}- seem to labor, under a species of reserve and timidity. But ■when at the time of the Crusades fanaticism broke loose and the might of the Church grew rapidly; when, furthermore, the Christian clergy had learned to make use of the services of baptized Jews in aid- ing schemes for the wholesale Christianization of their brethren, the leading spirits among the Jews felt constrained to lay aside all hesitation and reserve, so that with the twelfth century Jewish polemics appeared more frequently and more numerously. In northern France, R. Samuel b. Meir (Rash bam) and Joseph Bekor Slior demonstrated the weakness of the foundations sought for Christianity in the Bible; and Joseph b. Isaac Kimhi wrote the “Sefer ha-Berit,” in which he applied himself to the discussion of Chris- tian dogmas and their scientific refutation. Moses ibn Tibbon, in Montpellier (1240), and Meir b. Simon

wrote polemical works; and the latter in addition compiled the apologetic book “Milhamot Mizwah.” In Spain, although prominent Jewish scholars had embraced Christianity and placed their French and services at the disposal of the Church Spanish for public disputations and polemical Apologists, writings, there were also Jewish Apol- ogists that published their replies, either in special books or in the shape of letters ad- dressed to the apostates. Against Abner of Burgos (called, as a Christian, Alfonso of Valladolid), Shem- Tob ibn Shaprut wrote his pamphlet “Eben Bohan” (The Touchstone). To Maestro Astruc Raimuch (who, as a Christian, took the name of Francisco Dios Came) Solomon b. Reuben Bonfed addressed his epistle, full of sharp points, against Christian- ity. The philosopher Hasdai Crescas singled out Solomon lia-Levi (who, as a Christian, bore the names of Paul de Santa Maria and Paul of Burgos) and re- plied most vigorously to his attacks upon Jewish doc- trine. Possibly the most important apologetic wri- tings of all are those of Profiat Duran, of the fifteenth century, and of Simon b. Zemah Duran. Around these arrayed themselves a number of prominent Apologists, who wrote independently or- quoted chapters from the works of the Durans. In Italy Abraham Farrissol (born 1451) wrote an apologetic book, “Magen Abraham” (Shield of Abraham), in which he proved that the popes had permitted the Jews to take usury in order to enable them to pay the high imposts laid upon them. In Germany, in the beginning of the fifteenth eentuiy, Lipman of Muhlhausen wrote his apologetic treatise, “Nizza- lion ” (Victory), which name was given also to many other books of similar scope published in Germany.

Much less fanatical were the attacks encountered by J udaism from the side of Mohammedanism. The far more favorable political and social position of the Jews among the Mohammedans of Persia and Egypt and among the Moors in Spain — the latter of whom possessed but a scanty knowledge of the Bible and of Jewish literature — hardly Moham- gave such scope to aggressive polem- medan ics as would call out the Jewish de- Attacks. fense. In addition to Saadia and to the Karaite writers, the following were the chief Jewish authors who assailed Islam in defense of Judaism: Sherira b. Hanina Gaon, Judah ha-Levi (in his “ Kuzari ”), Abraham ibn Ezra, Moses b. Maimon, Moses of Coucy , and the author of the “ Zoliar. ” The whole range of Jewish literature contains but a single production of any extent (originally a portion of a larger work) that applies itself to an attack upon Is- lam. Under the title “ Iyeshet u-Magen ” (Bow and Shield) it was published in the eighteenth century at Leghorn as a supplement to Simon Duran’s work, “Magen Abot” (The Shield of the Fathers). This supplement was translated into German by Stein- schneider in 1880 in “ Magazin fur die Wissenscliaft des Judenthums.”

The invention of printing was the signal for the outpouring of a veritable flood of anti-Jewisli litera- ture. Johann Christian Wolf, in the second part of his “Bibliotheca Hebrrea,” published in 1721, enu- merates the titles of all publications by Christians against Jews and Judaism; and these titles alone

11

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Apologists

Apoplexy

fill fifty quarto pages of his book. Kayserliug in his “Biblioteca Espanola-Portugueza-Judaica,” pp. 114 et seg., gives a list of anti-Jewish writings in Spanish. To the earlier common calumnies — and es- pecially to that so often made by Spanish apostates, that the Talmudical passages directed against the heathens were in reality intended against Christians — there was added after the twelfth The Blood- century (occasionally at first, but after- Accusation ward more generally) the accusation and Other that the Jews used the blood of Chris- Calumnies. tians for ritual purposes. This is the identical accusation which the Romans of the second century made against the Christians. At the same time the charge is occasionally encoun- tered that the Jews pierce the consecrated host until blood flows from it. Sad to say, Catholic churchmen themselves spread these calumnies in order to fur- nish collateral proofs of the doctrine of transubstan- tiation enunciated at the fourth Lateran council in 1215 Jewish Apologists henceforth had to take no- tice of this accusation as well. An apologetic book in the spirit of Lipman Muhlhausen’s “ Nizzalion " was written by the Karaite Isaac of Troki (near Wilna, died 1593), entitled “ Hizzuk Emunali.” The blood-accusation was taken up by Isaac Abravanel in his commentary upon Ezekiel; by Samuel Usque — who had escaped from the fangs of the Inquisi- tion— in his “ Consolar;am as Tribuku^oes de Ysrael ” (1553) ; by J udah Karmi in his “ De Chari tate ” (1643) ; by Manasseh b. Israel in his “ Yindiciae Judaeorum ” (1656), translated into German by Marcus Herz, with a preface by Moses Mendelssohn ; by Isaac Cantarini in his “Vindex Sanguinis” (1680); by Jacob Emden in his open letter prefaced to his edition of the “ Seder ‘Olam Rabba we-Zutta” (1757); by I. Tugendhold in his “ Der Alte Wahn,” etc. (1831); by I. B. Levin- solm in his “Efes Dammim ” (1837); by L. Zunz in “ Ein Wort zur Abwelir ” (1840), and by many others.

Apologies of a more extended scope were written by the above-mentioned Samuel Usque, who treats historically of the departed glory of Israel and of the end of the period of Jewish power and wisdom ; by David d’Ascoli (1559), and by David de Pomis, who wrote the well-known apology “ De Medico Hebrteo” (1588), dedicated to Duke Francis II. of Urbino. Other Apologists were Solomon Zebi Uffen- hausen, author of “Zeri ha-Yehudim,” published in 1615; the proselyte Abraham Peregrino ("0. prose- lyte), who wrote “Fortaleza,” translated by Marco Luzzatto in 1775 into Hebrew; Emmanuel Aboab, author of “Nomologia,” written in Spanish, 1629; Simon Luzzatto, with his treatise upon the condition of the Jews; Jacob Lombroso (1640); Balthasar Oro- bio de Castro, who wrote apologetic essays in Am- sterdam ; Cardoso, with his work, “ Excellences de los Hebreos” (1679); Saul Levi Morteira (died 1660); Isaac Aboab; Judah Briel(1702); David Nieto, who wrote “Matteli Dan” (1714); Isaac Pinto (born in Bordeaux, 1715); and Rodrigues Texeira (died 1780).

With Moses Mendelssohn’s letter to Lavater, Jew- ish apologetic writings assumed another character: the question became one of political rights for the Jews. And it is indeed true that spiteful attacks upon Jews and Judaism have not yet ceased. Even the cultured classes among the most enlightened

nations are not yet able to divest themselves of the ancient prejudices and traditions. Atavistic senti- ments often show themselves stronger Modern than the dictates of reason. But the Polemics, apologetic writings of to-day are al- most exclusively of a political charac- ter, and will be rendered wholly unnecessary only when political and social equality the world over is an accomplished fact. See Anti-Semitism. Bi.ood- Accusation, Desecration of Host, Disputa- tions, Polemical Literature.

Bibliography: Steinsehneider. PoUmixclie unit Apologe- tische IMeratur, 1877 ; Winter and Wiinsche, JUiI. Lit. iii. 655-670; Hamburger, B. B. T. iii. division, supplement 5 (1900), pp. 16-27 ; Kayserling, Bibl. Kxp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 114 et seq. ; De Rossi, Bibliotheca Judaica Antichrist iana, Parma, 1800.

k. S. B

APOPHIS : The Egyptian king under whom, according to some early writers, Joseph came to Egypt, and who, according to Syncellus, flourished in the sixteenth century b.c. (“ Chronographia,” c. 115, §7). Josephus names Apophis as the second, and Julius Africanus enumerates him as the sixth king of the fifteenth, or Hyksos, dynasty. The mon uments explain the confusion. They exhibit two Hyksos kings, called Apopy, with the royal names ‘A-knon and ‘ A-user-re, apparently corresponding with the second and sixth Hyksos (compare “ Mittei lungen der Yorderasiatischen Gesellschaft,” iii. 17; for a different sequence see, for example, Petrie, “ History of Egypt,” i. 241). Syncellus seems to have meant the second Apophis, under whom the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt. This one reigned at least thirty-three years according to the monuments, forty -nine according to Manetho, to about 1570 b.c The identification with Joseph’s Pharaoh seems, how- ever, only a hypothesis influenced by the erroneous Hyksos theory of Josephus, so that no reliance can be placed on the dates given by Syncellus for Joseph’s arrival and elevation to his office, as corresponding with the years four and seventeen of Apophis. j. .ir. ‘ W. M. M.

APOPLEXY : A sudden loss or diminution of sensation and of the power of motion, caused by the rupture or plugging up of a blood-vessel in the cranial cavity and effusion of blood on or within the brain. Ordinarily it is referred to as a “stroke of paralysis.” The chief symptoms of this condition are sudden loss of consciousness, of motion, and of sensation, the affected person lying as if dead.

According to Dr. John Beddoe, Apoplexy appears to have no racial preferences. In New Orleans negroes and whites are said to die of Proportion Apoplexy in the proportions of 103 Between and 91 respectively. England, Scot Whites and land, Prussia, and Italy give each al- Blacks. most exactly the same figures, vary- ing between 10 and 11 per 10,000 of inhabitants. Switzerland and Holland yield 8.5 and 7.9 respectively, but Ireland gives only 5.9 per 10.000. The rate of mortality from Apoplexy is cer- tainly lower in quiet, rural districts than amid the hurry and worry, or excesses, of towns.

Lombroso, on analyzing the vital statistics of Ital- ian Jews, found that deaths due to Apoplexy are

Apoplexy

Apostasy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

12

twice as frequent among them as among the general population of that country. He attributes it to the emotional temperament of the Jew, to Predis- his reputed avarice, his constant strug- position of gle with adverse conditions of life, and Italian the ceaseless persecution of the race.

Jews. Lombroso further intimates that the frequent marriages of near kin among Jews, and the greater development and use of their brains, are also predisposing causes.

The writer has compiled some statistics of Ameri- can Jews, and finds that, in New York at least, the Jew is no 'more liable to Apoplexy than is the non- Jew. Thus, from Dr. John S. Billings’ report on “The Vital Statistics of the Jews in the United States” it is seen that among a Jewish population of 10,618 families, comprising 60,630 persons, there occurred 68 deaths from Apoplexy during the five years from 1885 to Dec. 15, 1889; which means that the death-rate from Apoplexy among the Jews was 1.12 per 1,000 population during five years, or an annual death-rate of .224 per 1,000. On consulting the “Annual Report of the Board of Health” of New York city for 1898 it is found that during that year 1,059 persons died of Apoplexy in the Borough of Manhattan. The estimated population of Man- hattan in that year was about 1,900,000, which gives a death-rate from Apoplexy of .55 per 1,000 of the general population ; and, according to the census of 1900, the mortality from this disease in the United States was .666 per 1,000. These figures show that among Jews the death-rate from Apoplexy is less than one-half that among the general population of Manhattan.

From the “Report on Vital Statistics in New York City ” of the Eleventh Census (1890) in the United States it appears that the death-rate from Apoplexy in New York city during the six years ending May 31, 1890, was as shown in t lie following table:

Deaths per 100, (Xto, of Persons Whose Mothers Were Born in

France 78.56

Ireland 78.11

Scotland 71.38

England and Wales 69.15

Germany 58.67

United States 49.15

Canada 46.21

Bohemia 36.08

Scandinavia 32.83

Hungary (mostly Jews). 19.10

Italy 16.59

Russia and Poland (al- most all Jews) 14.22

For the whole city the death-rate from Apoplexy was 59.37 per 100,000. From the above figures it is evident that the Russian and Polish Jews are far less frequently attacked by Apoplexy than are the peo- ples of other nations.

Further statistics collected by the writer from the annual reports of two Jewish hospitals, in compari- son with two non-Jewish hospitals in New York city, give the following table:

This gives about an equal rate for Jews and non- Jews, as might have been expected to be the case when the chief etiological factors in Three the production of Apoplexy are con- infrequent sidered. Syphilis, prolonged muscu- Factors. Jar exertion, and the abuse of alcohol are found to be important antecedents in a large number of cases of Apoplexy. These three factors are infrequent among the Jews, who might, therefore, rather be expected to be less liable to the aifection. But the busy, anxious life of the Jew, his constant and hard struggle against adverse conditions, have been operative in producing among Jews a number of apoplectics equal in relative pro- portion to that of non-Jews.

Bibliography: John P. Beddoe, Anthropology and Medi- cine, in Allbutt, System of Medicine , i., London, 1895; C. Lombroso, II Antisemitismn e i Giudei , German transl., Leipsic, 1894 : John S. Billings, Vital Statistics of the Jews in the United States (Census Bulletin, So. 19), 1890; An- nual Reports of the Mount Sinai, Beth Israel, New York, and St. Luke’s Hospitals, New York.

J. M. Fl.

APOSTASY AND APOSTATES FROM JUDAISM : Terms derived from the Greek anoara- ala (“defection, revolt ”) and airoa-arr]^ (“ rebel in a political sense”) (I Macc. xi. 14, xiii. 16; Josephus, “Contra Ap.” i. 19, § 4), applied in a religious sense to signify rebellion and rebels against God and the Law, desertion and deserters of the faith of Israel. The words are used in the Septuagint for YiD: Num. xiv. 9; Josh. xxii. 19, 22; for ^>yo: II Chron. xxviii. 19, xxxiii. 19; for "n)D : Isa. xxx. 1; and for fcria: I Kings, xxi. 13; Aquilas to Judges xix. 22; 1 Sam. xxv. 17. Accordingly it is stated in

I Macc. ii. 15 that “ the officers of the king compelled the people to apostatize,” that is, to revolt against the God of Israel; and Jason, the faithless high priest, is “ pursued by all and hated as a deserter of the law” (roii vo/iov enrooTaTTig ; II Macc. V. 8). As the incarnation of rebellion against God and the Law, the serpent is called apostate (LXX., Job xxvi. 13; and Symmachus, Job xxiv. 13; compare

II Thess. ii. 3; Revelation of John xiv. 6; Gen. R. xix., DVTip'DN).

The rabbinical language uses the following expres- sions for apostate: (a) “IE1D, from TOil : Jer. ii. 11; and rn YDH (Suk. 565; ‘Ab. Zarah 265; ‘Er. 69a), (b) TtDIC'G, from IDtJf (“ to persecute or force abandon- ment of the faith ”) (Yer. Suk. v. 55 d; Hebrew Gen. R. lxxxii. ; Yer. ‘Er. vi. 1 [235]; Expres- Sifra, Wayikra, ii. ;. Targ. Onkelos to sions. Ex. xii. 43). The Apostates during the Syrian persecution are caUed “ Me- shummedaya ” in Megillat Ta’anit vi. (ed. Mantua ; in later editions the word “Reslia‘im” is substituted

Table Showing Number of Patients Suffering from Apoplexy in New York City.

Jewish Patients.

Hospital.	Number of Patients.	Number of Cases of Apoplexy.	Apoplexy per 1,000 Sick.
Beth Israel, 1897-1901	3,633	29	9.30
Mount Sinai, 1898, 1899, and 1900.	9,497	27	2.73
Total	13,130	.56	4.26

Patients from the General Population.
Hospital.	Number of Patients.	Number of Cases of Apoplexy.	Apoplexy per 1,000 Sick.
New York, 1899-1 000	11,951 7,700	50	4.18
St. Luke’s, Oct. 1, 1897-Sept. 30, 1900.	43	5.58
Total	19,651	93	4.73

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Apoplexy

Apostasy

[Griitz, “Gesch. der Juden," 3d ed., iii. 600]). This is equivalent to “ Hellenists ” ; according to Cassel, avofioi { see “Revue des Etudes Juives,” xli. 268). (c) 1313 (“a denier”), in Sanli. 39a, of the Law, ib. 106a, of the God of Israel (B. M. 71a); of the funda- mentals (B. B. 166). (d) yens (“a rebellious

transgressor in Israel”), (e) TOX 'DUD CHDtl’ (“one who has separated from the ways of the Jewish com- munity”) (Seder ‘Olam R. iii.; R. H. 17a; Tosef., Sanli. xiii. 5). “No sacrifice is accepted from the apostate” (Sifra, l.c. ; Lev. R. ii. ; Hul. 5a; Yer. Shek.i. 1[466] ; “nor have they any respite from eter- nal doom in Gehenna” (R. H. 17a; see especially Sifre, Bemidbar 112 to Num. xv. 31). These expres- sions all probably date from the Maccabean time, when to such men as Jason and Menelaus the words of Ezek. xxxii. 23, 24, were applied: “they who caused terror in the laud of the living, and they have borne their shame with them to go down to the pit.”

The Apostasy of these two men (II Macc. v. 8, 15) being a desertion of both their national and religious cause, filled the people with horror and hatred, and their fate served as a warning for others. The out- spoken hostility to the law of the God of Israel on the part of the Syrians involved less danger for the ker- nel of the Jewish people than the allurements offered in Alexandria by Greek philosophy on the one hand and Roman pomp and power on the other. Here the tendency was manifested to break away from ancient Jewish custom and to seek a wider view of life (Philo, “De Migratione Abraliami,” xvi.), while the tyranny of a Roman prefect like Flaccus, who forced the people to transgress the Law, seems to have had.no lasting effect (Philo, “De Alex- Somnis,” ii., § 18). Comparing the

andrian proselytes with the Apostates, Philo Apostates, says (“On Repentance,” ii.): “Those who join Israel’s faith become at once temperate and merciful, lovers of truth and superior to considerations of money and pleasure ; but those who forsake the holy laws of God, the apostates, are intemperate, shameless, unjust, friends of falsehood and perjury, ready to sell their freedom for pleas- ures of the belly, bringing ruin upon body and soul.” Philo’s own nephew, Tiberius Julius Alexan- der, son of Alexander the Alabarch, became an apostate, and to this fact he owed his high rank as procurator, first of Judea, then of Alexandria; be- coming afterward general and friend of Titus at the siege of Jerusalem (Schiirer, “Gesch.” i. 473-474).

Against the many Apostates in the time of Calig- ula the third book of the Maccabees loudly protests; for Griitz (“Gesch. der Juden,” 2d ed., iii. 358, 631) has almost convincingly shown that it was written for that very purpose. While the faithful Jews who denied the royal command and refused to apos- tatize from their ancestral faith were rescued from peril and reinstated as citizens of Alexandria, the Apostates were punished and ignomiuiously put to death by their fellow-countrymen (III Macc. ii. 32, vi. 19-57, vii. 10-15); and the declaration was made that “those of the Jewish race who voluntarily apostatized from the holy God and from the law of God, transgressing the divine commandments for the belly’s sake, would also never be well disposed toward the affairs of the king.”

The “Pastor of Hernias” (“Similitude,” viii. 6, § 4; ix. 19, § 1), which is based on a Jewish work, says that “repentance is not open to apostates and blasphemers of the Lord and those who betray the servants of the Lord.” The same idea is expressed in Tosef., Sanli. xiii. 5: “The doors of Gehenna are forever closed behind heretics, apostates, and in- formers”; with which compare Epistle to Heb. iii. 12, and Apocalypse of Peter 34.

It is a remarkable fact in the history of Chris- tianity that, according to Acts xxi. 21, Paul was accused before the council of James and the elders of having taught the Jews Apostasy from the law of Moses; for which reason the early Christians, the Ebionites, “repudiated the Apostle Paul, main- taining he was an apostate from the law ” (Irenaeus, “Against Heresies.” i. xxvi.). It was probably due to the influence of Pauline Christian- Paul Called ity that “many of the Grecians,” as an Josephus (“Contra Ap.” ii., § 11) tells. Apostate, “had joined the Jews, and while some continued in their observance of the laws, others, not having the courage to persevere, departed from them again.” The destruction of the Temple, which put an end to the entire sacrificial worship, was the critical period of Judaism, which, while greatly increasing the numbers of Pauline Christianity, gave other Gnostic sects an opportunity of winning adherents. In the Maccabean period the blasphemer that stretched out his hands toward the Temple announcing its doom (II Macc. xiv. 33 el seq. ; compare I Macc. vii. 34 et seq. ) was sure to meet the divine wrath. Now many sectaries or Gnostics {Minim) had arisen “ who stretched out their hands against the Temple ” (Tosef. , Sanli. xiii. 5; R. II. 17a; compare II Macc. xiv. 33). Moreover, when the last efforts at rebuilding Temple and state ended in disastrous failure and in the persecu- Christian tion of the law-observing Jews, many Apostates of the new Christian converts became from informers against their brethren in Judaism, order to insinuate themselves into the favor (if the Romans. This naturally increased their mutual hostility, and widened the gulf between the Synagogue and the Church. The prayer that the power of wickedness as embodied in heathenism might be destroyed (which destruction was believed to be one of the signs of the coming of the Messiah) wasat this time transformed into an ex- ecration of the Apostates and slanderers “(Birkat ha- Minim,” Ber. 286; Yer. Ber. iv. 3, p. 8a ; Justin,” Dial, cum Tryphone,” xxxviii.). As a typical apostate, who, from being a great expounder of the Law, had become an open transgressor, a teacher of false doc- trines, and a seducer or betrayer of his coreligionists, the Talmud singles out Elisha ben Abuyali. known as Aher, “changed into another one.” The many traditions about his life, which became an object of popular legend, agree in the one fact that his Gnos- ticism made him a determined antagonist of the Law at the very time when Roman perse- Aher the cutiou tested Jewish loyalty to the Apostate, utmost; and consequently he is rep- resented as having heard a divine voice (“batkol”) issue from heaven, saying: “‘Return, ye backsliding children, and I will heal your backsli-

Apostasy and Apostates from Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

14

dings ’ (Jer. iii. 22) — all except Aher ! ” Still the rela- tions between the Apostatesand the faithful observ- ers of the Law remained tolerably good, as may be inferred from R. Me'ir’s continual intercourse with Aher, who honored the apostate as a man of learn- ing, even after his death. However, from the time when the Church rose to power and directed the zeal of her aonverts against their former brethren, these conditions changed. This majr be learned from the decree of Constantine in 315, to the effect that “all that dare assail the apostates with stones, or in any other manner, shall be consigned to the flames.” While the Synagogue was prohibited from admitting proselytes, all possible honors were con- ferred by the Roman empire upon Jews that joined the Church. The rabbis refer the verse, “ My moth- er’s children are angry with me ” (Song of Songs, i. 6), to the Christians, complaining that “those that emanate from my own midst hurt me most ” (Midr. R. and Zutta ad loc. ; also Tobiah b. Eliezer quoted by Zunz, “ S. P. ” p. 13, and “Tanna debe Eliyahu R.” xxix.).

An apostate, Joseph by name, a former member of the Sanhedrin of Tiberias, raised to the dignity of a comes by Constantine the emperor, in reward for his Apostasy, is described by Epiphanius in his “Panarium,” xxx. 4-11 (ed. Dindorf, pp. 93-105). He claimed, while an envoy of the Sanhedrin, to have been cast into the river by the Jews of Cilicia for having been caught reading New Testament books, and to have escaped drowning only by a miracle.

He must have done much harm to the

Joseph of Jews of Palestine, since the emperor

Tiberias, had, in the year 336, to issue, on the one hand, a decree prohibiting Christian converts from insulting the patriarchs, destroying the synagogues, and disturbing the worship of the Jews; and, on the other hand, a decree protecting the Apostates against the wrath of the Jews (Cassel, in Ersch and Gruber, “ Allg. Encyklopadie,” iv. 23 and 49, note 59; Gratz, “Gesch. der Juden,” iv. 335, 485). The very fact that he built the first churches in Galilee at Tiberias, Sepplioris, Nazareth, and Capernaum — towns richly populated by Jews and soon afterward the centers of a Jewish revolt against Rome — justifies Gratz in assuming that the dignity of comes conferred upon Joseph covered a multitude of sins committed against his former coreligionists in those critical times. The rabbinical sources al- lude only to the fact that Christian Rome, in accord- ance with Deut. xiii. 6 — “ the son of thy mother shall entice thee ” — said to the Jews, “ Come to us and we will make you dukes, governors, and gen- erals” (Pesik. R. 15a, 21 [ed. Friedmann], pp. 715, 1065]). A decree of the emperor Theodosius shows that up to 380 the patriarchs exercised the right of excommunicating those that had espoused the Chris- tian religion ; which right, disputed by the Christian Church, was recognized by the emperor as a matter of internal synagogue discipline (Graetz, “History of the Jews,” ii. 612, iv. 385).

That many joined the Church only to escape the penalty of the Jewish law is evidenced by a decree of the emperor Arcadius demanding an investiga- tion of each applicant for admission into the Church, as to his moral and social standing, and by the story

of a typical Jewish impostor told by the Church historian Socrates (Jost, “Gesch. der Israeliten,” iv. 225).

The great persecution by Cyril, in 415, of the Jews of Alexandria induced only one Jew to accept baptism as a means of safety : Adamantius, teacher of medicine ; the rest left the city (Gratz, “ Gesch. der Juden,” iv. 392).

The stronger the power of the Church became, the more systematic were her efforts at winning the Jews over to her creed, whether by promises, threats, or actual force. As a rule but few yielded to per- suasion or to worldly considerations, but more numerous were those that embraced Christianity through the threats and violence of enraged mobs.

Such was the case with the Jews in In southern France and in the Spanish Christian peninsula. Here a new term wTas Spain. coined for the Jews that allowed them- selves to be baptized through fear — Aausim. It is interesting to observe that the Coun- cil of Agde was compelled to take measures against the Jews “whose faithlessness often returneth to its vomit” (compare Prov. xxvi. 11, and the rabbinical expression niD^ "ITHI: Kid. 175; Gen. R. lxxiv. ; Jost, “ Gesch. der Israeliten, ” v. 64 et seq. ). The same measures were taken by the Council of Toledo in the year 633. Every single case of Apostasy under the influence of the powerful Church provoked the in- dignation of the Jewish community, where some inconsiderate act of a Jewish fanatic often led to riots, which always ended disastrously for the Jews, either in baptism or expulsion. A number of such instances are recorded by Gregory of Tours (Jost, “Neuere Gesch. der Israeliten,” v. 66 In France, et seq., 87 etseq. ; Cassel, lx. pp. 57-62;

Gratz, “Gesch. der Juden,” v. 60 etseq. ; compare also the edicts against the baptized Jews, in Gratz, “Die Westgothische Gesetzgebung, 1858”). In the Byzantine empire, also, forced conversion of the Jews took place under Leo the Isaurian in 723; many Jews becoming outwardly Christians while se- cretly observing the Jewish rites (Gratz, “ Gesch. der Juden,” iii. 123, v. 188; Cassel, l.c. p. 52). Tononeof these is the term “apostate,” in its strict sense, appli- cable. When, at the first persecution of the Jews in Germany under Henry II., in 1012, many had been baptized and afterward returned to the fold, R. Ger- shom of Mayence insisted on their being treated with brotherly kindliness and sympathy; and when his own son, who had become a convert to Christianity, died, he mourned him as his son, just as if he had not apostatized (Gratz, “Gesch. der Juden,” v. 410). Again, after the first Crusade, when many Jews, yielding to the threats of the mob, had been bap- tized, but with the permission of the emperor, Henry IV., had returned to their ancestral faith despite the protests of Pope Clement III., Rashi in his re- sponsa (“ Pardes,” p. 23) protested against their being shunned as Apostates by their brethren, and declared them to be full Jews (Gratz, “Gesch. der Juden,1' vi. 111-114; Berliner, in “ Kaufmann-Gedenkbuch,” pp. 271 et seq.). Nor is it correct to enumerate in the list of Apostates those Jews of Spain, France, and other countries, who, under the influence of the teaching of the pseudo-Messiah Serene (or Soria?),

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had dropped the many Talmudic statutes and later on returned to the fold, having in the meanwhile remained followers of the law of Moses. Natronai Gaon expressly declared them to have been Jews (Griitz, “Gesch. der Juden,” v., note 14, p. 482).

The name “apostate,” however, assumed a new meaning and character — that of bitter reproach — when a large number of baptized Jews of promi- nence used their knowledge and power as means of maligning their former brethren and the faith in which they had themselves been raised. Famous Many of the Inquisitors were deseend- Apostates. ants of converted Jews; for example, Don Francisco, archbishop of Qoria, Don Juan de Torquemada.

The first apostate that is known to have writ- ten against the Jewish creed was Moses Sephardi, known by the name of Petrus Alfonsi (physician to Alfonso VI.), baptized in 1106, and author of the well-known collection of fables, “ Disciplina Cleri- calis.” He wrote a work against Jewish and Mo- hammedan doctrines, entitled “Dialogi in Quibus Impiae Judaeoruin et Saracenorum Opiniones Con- futantur.” This book, however, seems to have had little influence. The harm which Petrus Alfonsi did to his former coreligionists can not be compared with that done by some other Apostates. Donin of Rochelle, France, in revenge for his having been excommunicated by the French rabbis because of doubts he had expressed concerning the validity of the Talmudic tradition, embraced Christianity, as- suming the name of Nicholas. He then went to Pope Gregory IX., bringing thirty -five charges against the Talmud, stating that it contained gross errors, blasphemous representations of God, and in- sulting expressions regarding Jesus and the Virgin Mary. Moreover, he was the first to allege — what afterward became a standing accusation — that the Talmud allows all kinds of dishonest dealings with the Christian — nay, declares the killing of one a meritorious act. This led to a general rigorous prosecution of the Talmud. A public dispute of the apostate with R. Jehiel of Paris, and Maligners other rabbis of France, was held in of Latin in the presence of the queen- Judaism. mother Blanche and many Church prelates; but, notwithstanding the favorable opinion created by R. Jehiel and the in- tercession of the archbishop of Sens, twenty-four cartloads of the Talmud were consigned to the flames in 1442 (see Disputations). Pablo Christiani or Fra Paolo, of Montpellier, was another apostate, who, having in a public dispute with Nahmanidesin Bar- celona, before James I. of Aragon, in 1268, failed to win laurels, denounced the Talmud before Pope Clement IV. In consequence of this a Christian censorship of the Talmud was introduced for the purpose of striking out all the passages that seemed offensive to the Church, Pablo being chosen one of the censors.

Still greater evil was wrought when Abner of Burgos, known also by the Christian name Alfonso Burgensis, a Talmudic scholar, philosopher, and practising physician, adopted Christianity to become sacristan of a wealthy church of Valladolid, and then wrote — partly in Spanish and partly in Hebrew

— works full of venom against Jews and Judaism. Especially successful was he in charging Jews with reciting among their daily prayers one directed against the Christians, the “Birkat ha-Minim and King Alfonso XI., after having convoked the repre- sentatives of Judaism to a public dispute, issued an edict in 1336 forbidding the Jews of Castile to recite that prayer. This calumny of the Jews bore its poi- sonous fruit for generations to come (see Abner of Burgos).

There were, however, some Apostates who were inspired by the Church to follow in her footsteps and to attempt the conversion of their former core- ligionists. To this class belonged John of Valla- dolid, author of two works against the Jewish creed. In 1375, in a public debate with Moses Coiien of Tordesillas, held at the church of Avila in the presence of the entire Jewish community and many Christians and Mohammedans, he endeavored to prove the truth of the Christian dogma from the Old Testament; but he was no match for his learned antagonist, nor did his successor in the debate, a pupil of Abner of Burgos, fare any better in his at- tacks on the Talmud. Still more harmless were the following rather frivolous satirists: Peter Ferrus, who ridiculed his former coreligionists, the worship- ers at the synagogue of his native town, Alcala, but evoked a pointed reply which alone Minor has caused his name to survive; and Apostates, his compeers Diego de Valensia; Juan d’Espana, surnamed “el Viejo” (the Old); Juan Alfonso de Baena, the compiler of the “ Cancionero, ” and Francisco de Baena, of the fif- teenth century, a brother of the former (Kayserling, “ Sephardim,” pp. 74 et seq.). To the same category belongs Astruc Raimuch, physician of Traga, Spain, who from a pious Jew became a fervent Christian, assuming the name of Francesco Dios Carne (God- flesh). In a clever Hebrew epistle he tried to win a former friend over to his new faith, and not only met with a mild protest on the part of the latter, but also evoked a vigorous ironical reply from the sharp pen of Solomon b. Reuben Bon fed.

Of all the Apostates of the twelfth century none displayed such delight in hurting his former brethren as did Solomon Levi of Burgos, known as Paul de Santa Maria. A former rabbi and a pillar of ortho- doxy, on intimate terms with the great Talmudists of the age, he joined the Church together with his aged mother, his brother, and his sons — only his wife refused to renounce her faith — studied Chris- tian theology, and quickly rose to the high position of archbishop of Carthagena, and then to that of privy councilor of King Henry III. of

Solomon Castile and tutor of the infant Juan Levi II. He devoted his great literary of Burgos, talents and mighty intellect only to calumniate Jews and Judaism, and he used his influence only to exclude his former core- ligionists from every political office and position. His open letters and satirical poems, addressed to the- most prominent rabbis in Spain, evoked many a re- ply, even from his pupils (see Crescas and Efodi). Strange to relate, however, one of these, Joshua ben Joseph ibn Vives of Lorca (Allorqui), although he had composed an epistle filled with reproof for the

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apostate, seems to have come under his influence and to have deserted the faith he at one time had so warmly espoused. Under the name of Geronimo de Santa Fe, he was body -physician and councilor of Pope Benedict XIII., and became the terror of the Jews of Spain. He induced the pope to summon the most learned rabbis of Aragon singled out by him to a religious disputation at Tortosa, for which he had prepared a treatise proving Jesus’ Messianic character from Scripture and Talmud. The debate lasted over twenty-one months, from February, 1413, to November, 1414. A little later Geronimo pub- lished a treatise accusing the Talmud of teaching blasphemy, of counseling the Jews to break their oath by the Kol Nidke declaration, and of every kind of hostility toward the Christians, every ref- erence to the heathen being by him interpreted as being directed against the Christians. From the in- itials of his name, Maestro Geronimo De Fe, he was called “ MeGaDeF.” (Heb. the Blasphemer). To the same class belong Levi ben Shem-Tob, called, as a Christian, Pedro de la Caballeria, who advised King Manuel of Portugal, in 1497, to take Jewish children by force and have them baptized ; Astruc Sibili (of Seville), who testified to the slanderous charge of murder brought against the Jews of Majorca in 1435; and Henrique Nunes (de Firma Fe), who served as spy against the unfortunate Maranos, and was about to help Charles V. to introduce the Inquisition into Portugal when he was assassinated by some Maranos, and then canonized by the Church as a martyr. Sixtus of Sienna and Philip (Joseph) Moro incensed their Jewish kinsmen by traveling about in the Papal State preaching, at the bidding of Paul IV., sermons for their conversion ; the former inciting the mob to burn every copy of the Talmud they could lay hands on after he himself had erected a pile for this purpose ; the other forcing his way into the synagogue while the people were assembled for worship on the Day of Atonement, and placing the crucifix in the holy Ark, where the scrolls of the Law were kept, in order thus to provoke a riot.

This desire to calumniate the Jews and the Tal- mud seems to have become contagious among the Apostates of the time; for there are mentioned five others that instigated throughout Italy and in the city of Prague the burning of thousands of Tal- mudic and other rabbinic books. Two of these were grandsons of Elias Levita, Vittorio The Eliano, and his brother Solomon Ro- Burning mano, afterward called John Baptista.

of the The former, together with Joshua dei Talmud. Cantori (ben Hazan), testified in Cre- mona against the Talmud, corrobora- ting the testimony of Sixtus of Sienna ; in conse- quence of which 10,000 to 12,000 Hebrew books were consigned to the flames in 1559. The latter, together with Joseph Moro, went before Pope Julius III. as a defamer of the Talmud, and these, with Ananel di Foligno, caused thousands upon thousands of copies of Hebrew books to be burned. A similar accusation, made by Asher of Udine in the same year, resulted in the confiscation of every Hebrew book in the city of Prague. Alexander, a baptized Jew, drew up for the tyrannical Pope Pius V. the points of accusation against the Jews, their faith,

and their liturgy, upon which their expulsion was decreed in 1596.

In Germany the first that became an accuser of his former coreligionists was Pesach, who, as a Chris- tian, assumed the name of Peter in 1399. He charged the Jews with uttering blasphemous words against Jesus in the prayer ‘Alenu, the letters of pm (“and vanity”), he said, being identical in nu- merical value with the name it?' (“Jesus”). The Jews of Prague were cast into prison, and many were killed because of the accusation.

In the calamity that befell the Jews of Trent and Ratisbon three Apostates took a leading part: Wolf- kan, who brought against the Jews the charge of slay- ing children for the ritual use of their blood ; Hans Vayol, who had the effrontery to accuse the aged rabbi of Ratisbon of this crime, and Peter Schwartz, who published slanderous accusations against his former coreligionists, and had the Jews of Ratisbon brought to the church to listen to his insulting harangues. As regards another apostate, Victor von Karben, a man of little Talmudic knowledge, he was merely a willing tool in the hand of the fanatical Dominicans of Cologne in their attacks upon the Talmud and the Jews, as is seen by the material he furnished for Ortuin de Graes’s book, “De Vita et Moribus Judseorum,” Cologne, 1504.

The climax, however, was reached by Joseph Pfefferkorn, of Bohemia. A butcher by trade, a man of little learning and of immoral Joseph, conduct, convicted of burglary and Pfeffer- condemned to imprisonment, but re- korn. leased upon payment of a tine, he was admitted to baptism about 1505, and, under the name of “ John ” Pfefferkorn, lent his name to a large number of anti-Jewish writings published by the Dominicans of Cologne. His first book, “ Judenspiegel, oder Speculum Hortationis,” written in 1507, contained charges, in somewhat milder form, against the Jews and the Talmud, though he re- buked them for their usury, and urged them to join Christianity, and at the same time admonished the people and princes to check the usury and burn the Talmudic books of the Jews. But this was soon followed by books each more violent than the other. These were: “ Die Judenbeichte,” 1508; “ Das Oster- buch,” 1509; “Der Judenfeind,” 1509. He insisted that all Jews should be either expelled from Ger- many or employed as street-cleaners and chimney- sweeps; that every copy of the Talmud and rabbin- ical books should be taken away from the Jews, and that every Jewish house be ransacked for this pur- pose. But though Reuchlin was called upon to participate in this warfare against the Talmud, he exposed the Dominicans and the character of Pfeffer- korn, their tool. Entire Christendom was drawn into the great battle between the Talmud detainers and the Talmud defenders, the friends of enlightenment siding with the Jews.

Nor were Von Karben and Pfefferkorn the only ones of their kind. The monks were only too will- ing to use others as their tools. One of these was Pfaff Rapp — by some said also to have been called Pfefferkorn — in Halle, for whom even John Pfeffer- korn felt disgust. He was burned at the stake, hav- ing committed sacrilegious theft.

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Antonius Margaritiia, son of the rabbi of Ratis- bou, published a German work : “ Der Ganz Jiidische Glaub,” Augsburg, 1530, wherein he repeated the charge that blasphemy against Jesus

Luther’s existed in the liturgy of the Jews,

Source. especially in the “ ‘Alenu.” Luther ac- knowledges having derived from this source the arguments in his polemical work against the Jews.

In 1614 Samuel Frederic Brenz of Osterberg, Swabia, who had been baptized in 1610 at Feuclit- wang, Bavaria, published a book full of venom against the Jews under the title “ Jiidischer Abge- streifter Schlangenbalg,” an “exposition of the blas- phemies the Jewish serpents and vipers utter against the guileless Jesus Christ ” — a work in seven chap- ters, wherein the prayer “ ‘Alenu ” was made an espe- cial object of attack. This attack was refuted by Solomon Zebi Uffenhausen in a work entitled “ Der Jiidische Theriak,” Hanover, 1615, and translated into Latin, together with Brenz ’s book and com- ments defending the Jews, by Johann Wiilfer, Nu- remberg, 1681.

As a rule the Apostates delighted in tormenting their former brethren, and this seems to have been the chief recommendation for their employment as censors of the Talmudic works. Wolf in his “ Bibli- otheca Hebraea” (ii. 1003-1013) has a list of 80 names of converted Jews that wrote against Judaism be- fore 1720. It would be unfair, however, to bring all these under the category of such Apostates as were imbued with a spirit hostile to their ancestral faith. A number of them perhaps felt called upon to denounce Judaism and the Talmud in view of the lucrative positions as teachers and missionaries offered them, and not because of their zeal for their new faith. From the Jewish writings they could deduce arguments in favor of the Christian faith. Among these was Christian Gersou, baptized in 1600, at Halberstadt. He was prominent as Other Emi- a defamer of the Talmud, and was nentApos- criticized for his unfairness by the tates. great French Bible critic Richard Simon. He wrote a German work, frequently published and translated into other lan- guages, “Jiidischer Talmud,” published in 1607; and “Der Talmudische Judenschatz,” published in 1610 — being a translation of chapter xi. of Sanhedrin — as a specimen of Jewish superstition.

Paulus Ricio, who was professor of Hebrew in Pavia, and physician of the emperor Maximilian, prepared a translation of part of Joseph Gikatilla’s cabalistic work “ Slia'are Orali” in 1516, and thus awakened Reuchlin’s interest in the Cabala. He commenced a translation of the Talmud in order to prove from it the Messianic character of Jesus. Moses Gerslion Cohen of Mitau assumed the name of Carl Anton, professor of Hebrew in Helmstadt, and wrote on Shabbethai Zebi in 1753. He took a prominent part in the Jonathan Eibensclnitz contro- versy, and published a number of books in the serv- ice of the Church. Aaron Margarita was another apostate who attacked the Talmud. By his charges against the Haggadah he caused Frederick of Prussia to put a ban upon an edition of the Midrasli in 1705.

Many Jews, disappointed in the hopes raised by II.— 2

Asher Lamlein’s Messianic predictions for the year 1502, took refuge in the haven of Christianity.

A number of Jews were, owing to their high social standing, so closely affiliated with the Chris- tian world that, in critical times, they Christian lacked sufficient self-abnegation to Affiliation, wear the badge of suffering along with their humbler brethren. Among these — and at the same time one of the victims of the great Spanish persecution of 1391 — was, singu- larly enough, the ancestor of the Abravanel family, Samuel Abravanel, who, as a Christian, adopted the name of Juan de Sevilla. In the year of the expul- sion, 1492, it was Abraham Benveniste Senior, chief rabbi and tax-collector of Seville, who with his son and son-in-law — also rabbis — went over to the Church, assuming the name of Coronel. King Fer- dinand, Queen Isabella, and Cardinal Torqueniada are said to have stood sponsors at their baptism.

The tide of the anti-Talmudical mysticism in Poland and the East, in the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries, which formed the undercurrent of the Shabbethai Zebi and Frankist movements, end- ed in a state of wild confusion and despair, and the consequence was the conversion of hundreds to Christianity. Chief among these Apostates were Wolf Levi of Lublin, a nephew of Anti- Judah Hasid, who assumed the name Talmudical of Francis Lothair Philippi and ln- Mysticism. came surgeon; and the son of Nelie- miah Hayyun, the Shubbethaian. who became an opponent of liis former brethren, and de- nounced, before the Inquisition at Rome, Talmudic and rabbinical works as inimical to the Church. Jacob ben Lob Frank of Galicia, the leader of the Podoliau Shabbethaians, and the Frankists who took their name from him, became likewise public accusers of the Talmud in the very center of Talmudic study. After a disputation with the chief rabbis of Poland, they accepted baptism in Lemberg, 1759. A few weeks later Frank himself followed them, and as sumed the name of Joseph. For those that aposta- tized in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, see Conversion to Christianity.

Islam, from the very outset, has emphasized the absolute monotheistic character of the faith of Abraham, in sharp distinction from the Trini- tarian dogma and the divinity of Jesus (sura iv. 169; v. 76-77, 116; ix. 30; xix. 36, 91-95; ii. 110; vi. 101; lxxii. 3; cxii. 2. “He is God alone; He begets not; is not begotten. Nor is there like unto Him any one!”). Quite naturally, therefore, the Jews took a somewhat different attitude toward Islam than toward Christianity. They rejected Mo- hammed’s claim to prophecy, but Apostates agreed with him in the fundamentals to of his faith. It is doubtful how far Islam. those Jews of Medina who were num- bered among the “Ansar” (Helpers) really apostatized to the new faith. The most im- portant of those who went over to Mohammed’s side was undoubtedly ‘Abd Allah ibu Salam, the most learned of all the Jews. With him were associated Ka‘b al-Ahbarand Wahb. When the Jews who still desired to remain true to their faith retired to Kliai- bar, Yamin ibn ‘Umair and Abu Sa‘d ibn Wahb

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remained at Medina and became Mohammedans. Later on Tlia'labah ibn Saya, ‘Usaid ibn Saya, and Asad ibn ‘Ubaid yielded, fearing attack on the part of the prophet’s men. A large number fol- lowed the example which had thus been set, and, when Khaibar was definitely taken, went over to the new faith. Among them was a woman, Raihanah, whom Mohammed at one time desired to marry. Most of these apostasies were due to force, very few to conviction (see Hirschfeld, “ Revue des Etudes Juives,” x. 10 et seq. ). Arabic tradition knows also of an apostate Jew in Palmyra, Abu Ya’kub, who provided fictitious genealogies, and connected the Arabs with Biblical personages (Goldziher, “Muliam- medanische Studien,” i. 178). In the ninth century mention is made of Sind ibn ‘Ali al-Yaliudi, court astrologer of the calif Al-Ma'mun. In the same century lived Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, author of a work on medicine ; as his name implies, the son of a rabbi, which fact, however, did not prevent him from joining the dominant church. Another Jew, however, Isma’il ibn Fadad (Spain?, eleventh cen- tury), was more steadfast. Ibn Hazm, author of the “Kitab al-Milal wal-Nihal,” had, indeed, persuaded him of the truth of Islam, but he refused to apos- tatize since “ apostasy was a disgraceful thing ” (“Z. D. M. G.” xlii. 617).

In the twelfth century many enlightened Jews joined Islam, partly owing, asGriitz thinks (“ Gesch. der Juden,” vi. 303 ; English ed. , iii. 441), to the de- generacy that had taken hold of Eastern Judaism, manifesting itself in the most superstitious practises, and partly moved by the wonderful success of the Arabs in becoming a world-power. Among these Apostates that occupied a prominent position was Nathaniel Abu al-Barakat Hibat Allah ibn ‘Ali of Bagdad, physician, philosopher, and philologist. Among his many admirers was Isaac, the son of Abraham ibn Ezra, who dedicated to En- him, in 1143, a poem expressing the lightened wish that he might live to see the Apostates Messianic redemption in the risen Jeru- to Islam, salem. Both Isaac ibn Ezra and Hibat Allah, his wealthy benefac- tor, became Moslems twenty years later.

Another apostate of this time was Abu Nasr Samuel ibn Judah ibn Abbas (Samuel of Morocco), the rabbi and liturgical poet of Fez, author of Che “ Ifham al-Yahud. ” Samuel makes the curious state- ment (“Monatsschrift,” xlii. 260) that most of the Karaites had gone over to Islam, because their sys- tem is free from all the absurdities of the Rabbinites, and their theology not so different from that of the Mohammedans. The statement is, however, un- grounded. Some of the Jewish sects, however, that arose in the Mohammedan East went perilously near , to the point where all distinction between them and Islam would be wiped out. Shahrastani, at least, speaks of one such sect, the ‘Isawiyyali, that ac- knowledged the prophecy of Mohammed, but held that it referred only to the Arabs; and this is cor- roborated by other authorities (Shahrastani, trans- lated by Haarbriicker, i. 254, ii. 421; “Monats- schrift,” 1885, p. 139; “Z. D. M. G.” xlii. 619).

The year 1142 brought a great crisis to the Jews in southwestern Europe. The rise of the Almohades

(Almuwahhidin = Unitarians) in northern Africa and the great wave of religious reform, mixed with religious fanaticism, which swept over Fez and into southern Spain, left them in most cases no choice but the adoption of Islam or death. Many submitted to outward conversion ; and in a touching communica- tion to his unfortunate brethren, sent in 1160 by Maimun ben Joseph, the father of Maimonides, he exhorts his brethren to remain firm in

Outward their faith, and advises those that have Con- yielded to encourage one another as versions to far as possible in the observance of the Islam. Jewish rites. The letter is directed especially to the Jews in Fez (Sim- mons, “Jew. Quart. Rev.” ii. 62 et seq.). Then the controversy arose whether such as had publicly pro- fessed belief in Mohammed were any longer Jews or not. One rabbi denied it, insisting that since death was preferable to Apostasy, the prayer and religious observance of the forced convert had no merit what- soever. This view is sharply criticized in a treatise ascribed to Moses Maimonides, the genuineness of which, though maintained by Geiger, Munk, and Griitz, has been convincingly refuted by M. Fried- liinder (“Guide of the Perplexed,” i., xvii., xxxiii., et seq.), in which Islam is declared to be simply a belief in Mohammed, and that Islam is not idolatry, to avoid which only the Law demands the sacrifice of life.

Abraham ibn Sahl, a Spanish poet of the thir- teenth century, was, however, distrusted by his new coreligionists, who did not believe that his conver- sion was sincere.

Among the Apostates that followed in the foot- steps of Samuel ibn Abbas, denouncing their ances- tral religion while pleading for the Islamic faith, are mentioned: ‘Abd al-Hakk alTslami, in Mauri- tania, in the fourteenth century, who published a work proving the validity of Mohammed’s prophecy from passages of the Bible which he quotes in the Hebrew language (Steinsclineider, “Polem. Lit.” p. 125): Abu Zakkariyah Yahya ibn Ibrahim b. Omar al-Rakili, who wrote, about 1405, “Tayit al-Millah,” a work against the Jews, wherein passages from the Pentateuch, the Prophets, the Psalms, and the Koran are quoted (id. pp. 34, 83).

The frenzy of the Shabbetliaian movement ended in many Jews assuming the turban, the symbol of Islamism. To these belonged as leaders: Shab- betliai Zebi; Nehemiah Cohen; Guidon, the sultan’s physician ; Daniel Israel Bonafoux, and finally Be- rakyah, son of Jacob Zebi Querido, regarded as suc- cessor of Shabbetliai Zebi, who with his hundreds of followers founded a Jewish-Turkish sect still existing under the name of Donmeii.

The bloody persecution of the Jews during the Damascus affair in 1840 caused Moses Abulafia to yield and assume the turban in order to escape fur- ther torture.

In general it may be said that the Apostates to Islam exhibited no great animosity toward their former brethren. Those that went over to the side of Ishmael never forgot that he and Isaac were both sons of Abraham ; and the reason for this is probably to be found in the tolerance which Mohammedans almost universally showed to the Jews. K. — G.

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Apostasy and Apostates Apostle and Apostlesbip

APOSTLE AND APOSTLESHIP : Apostle (Greek anonroloQ, from anoaTeX/ieiv, “ to send ”), a person delegated for a certain purpose; the same as xheliah or shelnah in Hebrew, one invested with representative power. “Apostoloi” was the official name given to the men sent by the rulers of Jerusalem to collect the half-shekel tax for the Temple, the tax itself being called “apostole.” SeeTheod. Reinach, “Textes Grecs et Romains, etc.,” 1893, p. 208, and also Grittz, “Gesch. der Juden,” iv. 476, note 21, where Eusebius is quoted as saying; “ It is even yet a custom among the Jews to call those who carry about circular letters from their rulers by the name of apostles ” ; Epiphanius, “Haerescs,” i. 128: “The so-called apostoloi are next in rank to the patri- archs, with whom they sit in the Sanhedrin, deci- ding questions of the Law with them.” The em- peror Honorius, in his edict of 399, mentions “the archisynagogues, the elders and those whom the Jews call apostoloi, who are sent forth by the pa- triarch at a certain season of the year to collect silver and gold from the various synagogues ” (“ Cod. Theodos.” xvi. 8, 14, 29. Compare Mommsen, “Cor- pus Inscr. Lat.” ix. 648. See Apostole).

Griltz, looking for parallels in Talmudical litera- ture, refers to Tosef., Sanh. ii. 6; Bab. 113, wherein it is stated that the regulation of the calendar or the intercalation of the month, the exclusive privilege of the patriarch, was delegated by him only to rep- resentative men such as R. Akiba and R. Meir, to act for him in various Jewish districts. (Compare also R. II. 25rt and elsewhere.) Such delegates in ancient times were also appointed by the communal authority, sheluhe bet din (delegates of the court of justice), to superintend the produce of the seventh year of release, so that no owner of fruit, tig, and olive trees, or of vineyards, should keep more than was needful for his immediate use— for three meals; the rest was to be brought to the city storehouse for common distribution every Friday (Tosef., Sheb. viii.). The name “delegate of the commu- nity ” (“ slieliah zibbur ”), given to him who offers the prayers on behalf of the congregation (Ber. v. 5), rests on the principle of representation as it is ex- pressed in the Mekilta on Exodus, xii. 6 : “ The whole assembly of Israel shall slaughter it.” How can a whole congregation do the slaughtering ? “ Through the delegate who represents it.” Accordingly, the elders of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem addressed the high priest “ sheluhenu usheluah bet din ” (our dele- gate and the delegate of the tribunal) (Yoma 183). (The “angels of the churches,” Rev. ii. 1, 12, 18; iii. 1, 7, 14, are probably also the “delegates of the churches,” not angels, as is the general opinion.) Other delegates — “sheluhim” — are mentioned in the Talmud; “Those sent forth to accomplish philan- thropic tasks [“ sheluhe mizwah ”] need fear no dis- aster on the road” (Pes. 83). “Those delegated to collect charity [“ gabbac zedakali ”] were always ap- pointed in pairs, and not allowed to separate in order to avoid suspicion ” (B. B. 83). As a rule two promi- nent men are spoken of as being engaged together in such benevolences as ransoming captives, and simi- lar acts of charity (Abot R. Nathan [A], viii. ; Lev. R. v. Compare the “ Haburot ” of Jerusalem, Tosef. , Megillah, iv. 15). Hama bar Adda was called “she-

lia.li Zion ” (delegate of Zion), as being regularly sent by the authorities of Babylonia to Palestine charged with official matters (Bezah 253; Rashi and ‘Aruk).

The apostles, known as such from the New Tes- tament, are declared to have derived name and authority from Jesus, who sent them forth as his witnesses (see Luke, vi. 13; Herzog and Hastings, s.e. “Apostles”). But they were also originally dele- gated by the holy spirit and by the laying on of hands (Acts xiii. 3) to do charity work for the community (see II Cor. viii. 23). “At the feet of the apostles” were laid the contributions of the early Christians to their common treasury, exactly as was done in the year of release in every city (Tos. Shebiit, viii. 1) and in every Essene community (Josephus, “B. J.” ii. 8, § 3). “Two and two” the apostles were enjoined to travel (Mark vi 7; Luke x. 2), exactly as was the rule among the charity-work- ers (B. B. 83), and exactly as the Essene delegates are described as traveling, carrying neither money nor change of shoes with them (Josephus, “B. J.” ii. 3, § 4; comp. Matt. x. 9, 10; Luke ix. 3, x. 4, xxii. 35; bennikkel tre-tarmil, Yeb. 122a). Thus Paul always traveled in the company of either Barnabas or Silas (Acts xi. 30; xii. 25; xv. 25, 30), and was entrusted with the charitable gifts collected for the brethren in Jerusalem (see also I Cor. xvi. 1; II Cor. viii. 4, ix. 5: Rom. xv. 25; Gal. ii. 10); while Barnabas traveled also with Mark (Acts xv. 39, 40). Paul even mentions as “noted apostles who joined the Church of Christ before him his kinsmen and fellow-prisoners, Andronicus and Ju- nia ” (Rom. xvi. 7). persons otherwise unknown to us, but who in all likelihood had received no other mission or Apostleship than that of working in the field of philanthropy among the Jewish community of Rome.

The meaning of the term “Apostle,” still used in its old sense (Phil. ii. 25) of “ Epapliroditus, your apostle [delegate] who ministers to my wants,” was, however, already changed in the Christian Church during Paul's time. It became the specific term for the one sent forth “ to preach the kingdom of God ” either to the Jews, or, as Paul and his dis- ciples, to the heathen world (Mark iii. 14, vi. 7; Luke vi. 13; Rom. xi. 13). “The gospel of the cir- cumcision gave Peter the chief-apostleship of the Jews, the gospel of the uncircumcision gave Paul the apostleship of the Gentiles,” according to Gal. ii. 7, 8; and so Paul calls himself an Apostle not of men but of Jesus Christ (Gal. i. 1). So the term “apostles of Christ” became a standing designation (I Thess. ii. 6), and it was confined to those who “saw Christ” (I Cor. ix. 1).

Finally, the number twelve, corresponding with the twelve tribes of Israel, was fixed in the Gospel records (Matt. x. 2; Mark iii. 14; Luke ix. 1; Acts i. 25) in opposition to the apostles of the heathen, who rose in number from one, in the case of Paul, to seventy (Luke x. 1). Even the act of preaching the good tidings concerning the coming Messiah on the part of the wandering delegates of the commu- nity (Luke iv. 18; because of which Jesus himself is once called the Apostle [Heb. iii. 1]) was not with- out precedent in Jewish life, as may be learned from the prayer for good tidings recited every new

Apostles Teaching- Apostomus

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moon (“ Seder Rab Amram,” 33, Warsaw, 1865; com- pare R. H. 25a and Targ. Yer. to Gen. xlix. 21).

K.

APOSTLES' TEACHING. See Didache.

APOSTOL, DANIIL PAVLOVICH ; Hetman of the Cossacks on both sides of the Dnieper; born in South Russia in 1658; died Dec. 15, 1734. When Catherine I. expelled the Jews from the Ukraine (Little Russia) and from other parts of the Rus- sian empire, May 7, 1727, Apostol was the first one to apply to the senate to modify the harsh law. The Cossacks, who eighty- years before had mas- sacred in the most cruel manner many hundred thousands of Jews in the Ukraine, Volhynia, Podo- lia, Poland, and Lithuania, and who under the lead- ership of Chmielnitzky had used their best endeav- ors to keep the Jews out of their country-, had found out by this time that they could not get along very- well without Jewish merchants, who were indis- pensable for the mediation of commerce between the Ukraine and the Polish and Lithuanian provinces. In response to Apostol's application, which was ac- companied by his sworn statement, Jews were per- mitted by the edict of Sept. 2, 1728, to attend the fairs of Little Russia, provided they carried on wholesale business only. Three y-ears later, Sept. 21, 1731, they were granted the same privilege under the same conditions in the government of Smolensk ; and six years later they- were also permitted, “ for the benefit of the inhabitants,” to carry on trade at fairs in retail.

Bibliography: Pnlnne mhrnnie zakonov, vii. 5063, viii. 5324,

5852, ix. 0610, 6621 ; Kiitziklopeclicheski Slovar , i., s.v., St.

Petersburg, 1891.

H. R.

APOSTOLE, APOSTOLI : These two words, while similar in appearance, differ in signification. “Apostole” was a term given to certain moneyrs or taxes for Palestine ; “Apostoli,” the designation of the men or apostles sent forth to collect it. The first record of them is in a joint edict of the emper- ors Arcadius and Honorius in the year 399 (“Codex Theodosianus, ” xvi. 8, 14) ordering the discontinu- ance of the custom of the patriarch of the Jews in Palestine to send out learned men, called Apostoli, to collect and hand to the patriarch money levied by the various synagogues for Palestine; that the sums already received be confiscated to the impe- rial treasury, and that the collectors be brought to trial and punished as transgressors of the Roman law. Five years later Honorius revoked the edict (“Cod. Tlieod.” xvi. 8, 17). At about the same time Jerome (Comm, on Gal. i. 1) mentions the Apos- toli (called in Hebrew aheliah), showing that in his day- they were still sent out by- the patriarch ; and in the first half of the fourth century- Eusebius (Commentary on Isa. xviii. 1) writes of them as vested with authority- by- the patriarch.

In the letter— the genuineness of which is not un- impeaclied — written by Emperor Julian to the Jews in 362-63, he orders the patriarch J ulos to discontinue the so-called airoaro^Tj. The matter is most fully- treated by- the church father Epiplianius (“Ad- versus Ibereses,” i. xxx. 4-11). He describes an anostolos, Joseph of Tiberias, of the first half of

the fourth century-, with whom he had associated and who later embraced Christianity. According to Epiplianius, the Apostoli were Jews Apostoli of the highest rank, that took part in were Jews the councils of the patriarch which of Highest convened to decide questions of re- Rank. ligious law. The aforesaid Joseph, provided with letters from the patri- arch, went to Cilicia, collected the taxes of the Jews in every- city-, and removed a number of teachers and precentors from their positions. Thus the direction of affairs in the Jewish communities apparently- fell under the authority of the Apostoli.

From Talmudic accounts (Yer. Hor. iii. 48a; Pes. iv. 3 16; Git. i. 43d; Meg. iii. 74a) it appears that the Apostole was used to support teachers and dis- ciples in Palestine. Another evidence that it was so used is that a similar sy-stem, doubtless tracing its origin to Palestinian examples, obtained in the Baby- lonian schools during the gaonic period (“Seder ‘Olam Zutta,” ed. Neubauer, in “Medieval Jewish Chron.” ii. 87). The same point is made clear by- an edict of the emperors Theodosius II. and Valen- tinian, of the year 429 (“Cod. Tlieod.” xvi. 8, 29). It ordered that the annual contributions, which, since the extinction of the patriarchate, had been delivered to the heads of the Palestinian academies, should in future be collected for the imperial treasury, each congregation to be taxed to the amouut formerly- paid to the patriarch as coronarium aurum. The moneys paid by- western provinces to the patriarchs were also to be handed over to the emperor.

The exact date of the Apostole is not known; but the account in the Talmud of the money--collections by- teachers in the first century gives Relation rise to the conjecture that the Apos- to the tole was instituted upon the establisli- Temple ment of the school at Jabneh, in the

Tax. year 70, though its organization may

not at once have been fully- developed. It probably grew out of the former Temple tax, with which it possesses several features in common. The Temple tax, however, was brought from the congregations to Jerusalem by- messengers of high rank ; while the Apostole, in consequence of condi- tions due to the fall of the Temple, was collected by- teachers sent to the various countries. See Apostle

AND APOSTLESHIP.

These teachers may- at the same time have con- veyed to the Jews outside of Palestine the arrange- ment of the calendar decided upon by the council of the patriarch. As the insertion of an extra month for the leap-year had to be determined upon, at the latest, in Adar (‘Eduy. vii. 7), the messengers com- municating the order of the calendar possibly found ready the contributions that were collected in Adar as the Temple tax of former days had been. The institution of the Apostoli continued after the intro- duction of the fixed calendar (359) until Emperor Theodosius II., in 429, forbade it in the Roman empire. The messengers probably- journeyed to lands not belonging to Rome, even to South Arabia, if the account (525) of the Syrian bishop, Simon of Bet-Arsliam, may- be trusted (compare Halevy in “Rev. Et. Juives,” xviii. 36, and “Rev. Sem.,” 1900, p. i.).

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Apostles’ Teaching Apostomus

Bibliography : Gratz, Geseh. der Jud ., iv. 304 and note ‘41 ; compare Schiirer, GescJi. des Jthl. Volkes im Zeitalter Jem, iil. 77 ; Gans, in Zxinz' Zeitsclirift /fir die Wissemchaft des Judenthums , i. 260-270.

G. A. Bii.

APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS. See Didas-

CALIA.

APOSTOMUS: Among five catastrophes said to have overtaken the Jews on the seventeentli of Tammuz, the Mishnali (Ta'anit iv. 6) includes “the burning of the Torah by Apostomus ” (written also Postemus and Apostemus). Owing to this very vague mention, there is much difference of opinion as to the identity of Apostomus. At a first glance he may be associated with one of the following two incidents: (1) Josephus (“Ant.” xx. 5, §4; “B. J.” ii. 12, § 2) relates that about the year 50 a Roman soldier seized a Torah-scroll and, with abusive and mocking language, burned it in public. This inci- dent almost brought on a revolution ; but the Roman procurator Cumanus appeased the Jewish populace by beheading the culprit. (2) The other incident of the burning of the Torah, which took place at the time of the Hadrianic persecutions, is The Tal- recounted by the rabbis. Hanina b.

mudic Teradyon, one of the most distin- Account. guished men of the time, was wrapped in a Torali-scroll and burned (Sifre, Deut. 307; ‘Ab. Zarah 18a; Sem. viii.). In con- nection with this a certain “ philosopher, ” DISIDI^Q, is mentioned as the executioner of Hanina. It is quite possible that DlSIDl^D is a corruption of DWIDD12, and there are circumstances which lend plausibility to this assumption. According to the Jerusalem Talmud (Ta'anit iv. 68c et seq.), Apos- tomus burned the Torah at the narrow pass of Lydda (or, as another report has it, at Tariosa, which was probably not far from Lydda); and it is known that Hanina was one of “the martyrs of Lydda.” Fur- thermore, a somewhat later authority (Addenda to Meg. Ta'anit, ed Neubauer, in “Medieval Jew. Chron.” ii. 24) gives the date of Hanina’s death as the twenty -seventh of Tammuz, which is only a difference of a few days from the date assigned to the crime of Apostomus. The Mishnali referred to adds the following statement to its account of the burning of the Law : “ And he put up an idol in the sanctuary.” Here it is first necessary to determine that the reading Tnyn'l (“ and he put up ”) is correct, and that it should not be “iDyim (“ and there was put up”), which the Jerusalem Talmud (Ta'anit iv. 68d) gives as a variant of the TDyiTI iu the accepted text, interpreting the fact mentioned in the Mishnali as re- ferring to the idols put up in the sanctuary by Manas- seh (II Kings xxi. 7). But the incorrectness of this interpretation is proved by the passage in the Mish- nali on the five calamities of the Ninth of Ab, which are enumerated in strictly chronological order ; so that it is quite impossible that any reference to the Tem- ple desecration by Manasseh should be registered after the burning of the Torah by Apostomus. The Babylonian Talmud knows only the reading TftyiTl (“and he put up”) in the Mishnali, as the remark of the Gemara (Ta'anit 285) proves, where the “abomi- nation of desolation,” of which Daniel (xii. 11) speaks, is connected with the image of the idol in the Tem- ple. By this expression can only be meant the statue

of Zeus Olympius set up by Antiochus Epiplianes (see Abomination op Desolation; and compare Griitz, “Dauer der Hellenesirung,” in “Jahresbe- richt ” of the Breslau Seminary, 1864, pp. 9, 10).

The reading ‘TOinni, found in Rashi and in the Munich manuscript, has been simply diawn from the Jerusalem Talmud ; and, indeed, in the Gemara the Munich manuscript has VOynV But the state- ment in the Babylonian Talmud, that the Mishnah source concerning Apostomus is a Gemara (tradi- tion), shows that, according to the Babylonian au- thorities, the date of Apostomus can not be placed later than the Maccabean period. For

Another Gemaia is a technical term employed Name for by the Talmud to designate tannaitic Antiochus sayings connected with Biblical events Epiphanes. or laws which are neither mentioned nor alluded to in the Scriptures, in con- tradistinction to those which can be derived from the Biblical text. Hence Apostomus must belong to a time in reference to which there existed also writ- ten sources that were known to the Talmudic au- thorities, the latest limit being the Maccabean period ; and as it has been shown that the pre-Maccabean, the Biblical, epoch must be excluded, it follows that Apostomus was no other than Antiochus Epiphanes, of whom, moreover, it is known, also from other sources, that he set tip an idol in the Temple. Apos- tomus, then, must be considered as a nickname for Antiochus Epiphanes. In fact, his name was trans- formed even by pagan authors into “Epimanes” = “the Insane” (see Antiochus Epiphanes, and, as told in I Macc. i. 56, Torah-scrolls were burned dur- ing the persecutions by Antiochus Epiphanes).

The meaning of the name “Apostomus” is not clear. Ewald (in his “ History ”), alluding to certain passages in the Bible and the Apocrypha (Dan.vii. 8, 20; viii. 23; and xi. 36; I Macc. i. 24), where reference is had to the boastful mouth of Antiochus Epiphanes, derives “Apostomus” from anrve (“big”) and ardua (“mouth”). The appellation “big-mouth” is cer- tainly very appropriate. Still this explanation can scarcely be accounted as correct; for aixvc is a rare word, used only in poetry. More probable perhaps is Jastrow’s derivation (verbally con- Meaning of veyed) of “Apostomus” from kiucro- the Name. to stop or stuff up the mouth”)

and emoTi/ios (“ anything that stops up the mouth”), which may be connected with the Talmudic phrase iTDlD^ NtEy (“May his mouth be stuffed full with earth! ”), applied in the Talmud to the name of a man who had spoken boldly against the Deity (B. B. 16a).

The following are other explanations of the word: Jastrow (“ Dictionary of the Talmud ”) offers a sug- gestion that it may be a corruption of a-6aro/.o( (“ambassador”), and makes it refer to the envoy spoken of in II Macc. vi. 1, 2 as having desecrated the Temple. Hochstadter sees in “ Apostomus ” a corrupted form of cnroaraTr/c (“apostate ”) and iden- tifies him with the high priest Alcimus. Schwarz and Derenbourg consider “ Apostomus ” the name of the Roman soldier referred to by Josephus. Brull connects him with Cornelius Faustus, who under Pompey was the first to climb the wall of Jerusalem. Halberstamm is of opinion that “ Apostomus ” is the

Apothecaries

Apple

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Hebrew transcription for the Latin “ Faustinus.” and that the name, furthermore, is to be connected with Julius Severus, whose surname was Faustinus, and who perpetrated the crime described in the Mishnah when he was sent by Hadrian to put down the Bar Kokba rebellion, in which case the setting up of an idol in the sanctuary would have to be taken to refer to the dedication of a temple of Zeus upon the con- secrated ground of the Temple.

[The name of the soldier that burned the Torah scroll, mentioned in Josephus, was Stephanos, which, written in Hebrew DlJ2t3DX. may have been cor- rupted into D1DL2D12N K. j

Bibliography: Briill’s Jahrb. viii. 9; Derenbourg, Essai , p. 58 ; Ewald, Histor u of Israel, v. 293, note 1, and 299, note 2 ; Halberstamm, in Rev. Et. Juives, ii. 127 et seq. ; Hochstiidter, in Itahmer's Literatur-Blatt, vii. No. 20; Rapoport, Ereh Millin, p. 181; id. in Kobak’s Jeschurun, i. 45 (Hebrew sec- tion); Schwarz, Das Heilige Land, p. 279 ; Jastrow, Diet. s.v. J. SR. L. G.

APOTHECARIES, JEWISH. See Medi- cine, Physicians.

APOTHEKER, ABRAHAM ASHKENAZI :

An apothecary (“aptheker,” according to the cus- tomary Polish- Jewish syncopated pronunciation) and writer, whose name betokens both his nationality and his profession. He lived at Vladimir in Volhynia in the second half of the sixteenth century. He was the author of D'TI DD ("The Elixir of Life”), a work, written in Hebrew and in Judaeo-German, on the duties of Jews of both sexes and of all conditions, or as the author expresses it: “ ‘ Elixir of Life ’ is this book’s name, to preserve every one against sin and shame.” Through the efforts of his compatriot Moses ben Shabbetliai, a native of Lokaczy (not far from Vladimir), it was printed in Prague (1590), un- der the direction of the son of Mordecai ben Gerson Cohen. Like most books printed in Prague for the edification of women, it has become rare. Jehiel Heilprin possessed a cop}- of it, as it is included in the list of works which he used in compiling his “ ‘ Erke lia-Kinnuyim,” and also in his “Seder ha- Dorot,” written about 1725. Another copy was owned by Rabbi David Oppenlieim, a contemporary of Heilprin. This copy is at present in Oxford. A third copy, now in the British Museum, came from the Michael Library ; a fourth is at Wilna,